GCSE History (Edexcel) - Migrationn

When did the Vikings Invade?

865 AD

Describe Viking raiding

The Vikings raided mostly along England's north and eastern shores for 70 years.

They were searching for treasure (gold, silver, jewels and anything that was valuable) they could take back on thier ships to Scandinavia

The rich undefended monasteries and abbeys in the north were an easy target such as Lindisfarne which was raided in 793

What was the Lindisfarne Raid?

Viking assault in 793 on the holy island of Lindisfarne, which was easy for the Viking boats to raid

Undefended and full of valuable relics

Took some monks as slaves and beheaded the others

Describe the process from raiding to invading for the Vikings

raided for about 70 years before started invading

850 a raiding party spends the winter camped on the isle of Thanet Kent.

854 another raiding party camped on the Isle of Sheppey in the Thames estuary

865 the raiding stopped and the Vikings started trying to invade England

Why did Vikings Invade?

Agriculture: The land in eastern England was rich and fertile. Vikings and their families could settle, farm the land and live well.

Trade: Many English towns were important trading centres with Europe. Taking over these towns and their trade could make Vikings rich.

Religion: Odin, the god of war and military victory, was the Vikings' most important god. To fight and to win meant that Odin would reward Viking warriors after death.

When did the Normans invade England?

1066 AD

When did William invite Jewish people to England

1070 AD

Why did the Normans invade?

Economic:

1) England's sophisticated taxation and coinage system

2) Feudal System - Gives protection (through armies/knights) and all land belongs to the King

Political

1) William (Duke of Normandy) claimed the late King Edward and Harold Godwinson (current king) promised the throne to him in 1051 and 1064

2) England currently unstable after Edward died - opportunistic- as the dying king had no children to inherit the throne

Who is Harold Godwinson?

Earl of Wessex, most powerful noble in England

6th June 1066 crowned king of England

Promised the throne by Edward as shown on The Bayeux Tapestry which was made a few years after the battle of Hastings

Had the support of the Witan

Describe the battle of Hastings

October 1066

William Duke of Normandy vs Harold Godwinson

took place on the Senlac Hill

on Williams way to London he burned farms and villages, destroying crops on the way - terrifying people into surrender

William crowned king of England in Westminster Abby on Christmas day 1066

Why did Jewish people migrate?

Religious:

1) Antisemitism in Europe

- From about 70 CE Romans began driving the Jews out of thier traditional homelands in the Middle East

Economic:

1) opportunity to economically prosper in England - invited by King William I in 1070 as the pope forbade Christian's from charging interest on loans so needed Jews to become money lenders to fund his castles and cathedrals to establish Norman control

2) Became financiers to the king and England's nobility, some were able to make great wealth (as they were able to charge interest as they were not Christian)

When did Low Countries and Lombardy start to migrate

1220 AD

Why did people from the Low Countries migrate?

Economic:

1) Black Death - more job opportunities available in England (40%-60% of population gone)

2) Wages high as there was a lack of workers

3) Henry VIII in 1330 bans export of English wool (so weavers have to move to England)

4) Henry VIII allows Low countries weavers to set up their own guilds.

Political:

1) The Hundred Years war - (1337 - 1453) - Low Countries work disrupted

2) Low Countries weavers Invited by Henry III in 1270 to come and work in England

Why did bankers from Lombardy migrate?

Economic:

1) Growing towns and cities in England provided excellent opportunity for bankers.

2) They had heard of the success of Jewish moneylenders in England

3) after 1265 there was opportunity to become even more prosperous as Pope allowed Christians to charge interest and no longer had to pay a usury fine.

4) heard of the problems with Jewish money lenders and were hoping to take over

Political:

1) Henry III promised royal protection in 1220

2) this led to rich families from Lombardy arriving in England from 1220s with thier families

Viking Experience - Harmony

Trade locally and internationally

Gave structure - set up 'Things', had fun and told Sagas, lived in Danelaw and adapted quickly, King Cnut allowed some Saxons positions of power

England prospered - peaceful under Edgar and under the successor Edward the Confessor for a further 24 years

Danes allowed Saxons to mint coins and circle them in Danelaw

Many Dane's became Christians - worshipped alongside their gods

Viking experience - Conflict

Alfred's son Edward and Athelstan fought campaigns to control Danelaw - A won 937

Vikings raided to regain old Danelaw - Ethelred tried to pay them to keep them away

St Brice's Day - 13 Nov 1002 - Ethelred massacred all the Danes in Enlgand's territory

Viking attacks increased in response - 1013 Ethelred driven out and 1016 Dane Cnut became king

Normans experience - harmony

Feudal system - ment that William owned all the land and loaned it to Normans to gain loyalty

Domesday book 1085 - the first census as it recorded who owned what and how the land was used in order to tax people accordingly

Normans experience - Conflict

Castles meant Normans could prevent rebellions and display power

Feudal system - takes all the land for the Normans

Danes left 1071

1068 - Exeter Siege - Normans won

1069-70 - Harrying of the North - Normans destroyed Saxon livelihood and homes as a warning

Jewish experience - harmony

Helped businesses and trades flourish for many years

Created Jewries - separate areas of towns and cities where Jews lived

Jewish experience - conflict

Had to charge high interest- resentment from others

Church taught against Jews - also blood libel and other false story propaganda

1265 - Pope allowed Christian bankers to charge usury - less needed

1230s - Jews expelled from several towns

1265 - 500 killed in London

1275 - EI made law banning Jews collecting interest

1290 - EI ordered all Jews to convert to Christianity or leave - 3000 refused, most converted

Low Countries/ Lombardy - harmony

- Settled quickly - were skilled craftsmen which many needed

- Some worked with English people - teaching new techniques (eg Flemish brick makers)

- Weavers skilled and well received - lots of profit

- Merchants given royal protection - paid lower taxes and customs tariffs

- HIII sent letters to important banking families in Lombardy promising royal protection

Low Countries/ Lombardy - conflict

- Craft guilds believed migrants were taking their jobs & selling goods at a lower price - hostility

- 1381 - during peasants revolt 150 weavers/ merchants murdered

- People suspicious of of foreigners - worried could be dangerous

- 1492 - English attacked the Steelyard - burnt buildings and destroyed goods - where Hanseatic league (German merchants were based)

Viking impact

- Spoke old Norse - modern English contains many Norse words and grammatical/ word structures similar

- 'Things' can be argued to be foundation for trials/ democracy - punishments discussed and laws decided by voting

- Vikings divided area of Danelaw in 3 - gradually changed to North, East, West Riding - administrative areas until 1974

- Women had equal rights - could own and inherit land, speak at 'Things'

Norman impact

- William took over chancery and appointed N. chancellors

- William used Domesday book to help improve Edwards taxation system which he kept

- William appointed N. sheriffs to pre-existing shires - land owners made decisions in all shire courts - soon would all be Norman

- Castles, Cathedrals, Monasteries, Abbeys, Churches all built

- North - villages been destroyed and nothing grew in burnt fields

- William rep,aced all but 1 of 16 Saxon Bishops with Normans - hierarchy constructed (Archbishop at top)

- By 1200 - all brick churches stone

- Old French came together with pre existing language - Norman first names more common (eg Richard, Robert)

- Forest laws protected W's hunting - severe poaching punishments

- Mundrum - law enforced fine any hundred fined for murder where suspect not caught

Jewish Impact

- Monarch's borrowed their money - did not have to raise taxes/demand money from barons

- Jews heavily taxed with punishments for not paying - some loans never repaid

- Lent money to locals for businesses

- Lent money to merchants for trade overseas, and some became merchants - created wealth

- Lent money to Cistercian monks - built fountains abbey

- Colleges built with the money (eg Merton College)

- students pawned books to J.Pawn brokers to cover expenses

- worked as tutors fro students studying Hebrew text

- Ruthlessly expelled - 1290

Low Countries/ Lombardy Impact

- Helped transformed economy from primary to secondary

(Primary - based on raw materials)

(Secondary - changes raw materials to manufactured goods)

- Crown grew richer from taxes on imports/ exports of goods

- England became a key European trading centre (clothe)

- Lombardy banker's financial skills - began to turn London into an international financial market

Case study - York - Why?

- Largest town in Britain - only mint in Northern English

- Extremely wealthy - captured York 866

- Roads/rivers made it easy to travel fast

- Important trading city

- Lots of rich, fertile soil for farming because of rivers

Case study - York - Migrants

- 10,000-15,000 Vikings migrated 866-950

- Many cultures - Vikings mixed with migrants and merchants from Germany, modern day Holland, Ireland and Scotland

- Built small homes and workshops, thatch and whittle, later timber

Case study - York - Trade

- Street names show variety of trade

- Skilled craftwork - helped increase English trade paper across the world

- Began to use coins with king's name

- Was a rich trading point - traders travelled as far as Caspian Sea, traded for imports of wines, silks, oils/perfume etc

- Had excellent road connections to rest of E.

-Timber, wool, iron ore, food etc brought to cities on roads

Case study - York - Church

- Important land owner in York, but financially poor - lost land to the Vikings

- Active in settlement, many Vs converted to Christianity

- Archbishops involved in negations with other kingdoms, may even have helped choose Viking Kings

- Most coins after 900 had Chr. symbols, however pagan symbols were shown and Latin spelling errors

Case Study - York - End of Viking/ Dane control

- 927 - Athelstan conquered large parts of York and A.Saxons ruled until 939 - no sign of changes

- 939 - Athelstan's death - Northumbrian's wanted a 'Northern leader' - agreement to set border between Land owned by Vs and A.Saxons

- Wars continued for next 15 years - last of V York driven out by A.Saxons - however still had Danish influence

1500-1700 - Changes in gov

- Parliament had more power

- Charles I executed in 1649 - O.Cromwell ruled republic England for 11 years

- 1660 - Charles II invited by gov to rule - limited power

- Religion changes with gov, migrants allowed/ not depending on religion and gov.

1500-1700 - Changes in religion and impacts

- 1500 - Catholic

- 1534 - Henry 8th splits - Church of England

- Edward VI 47-53 - Protestant

- Mary Tudor 53-58 - Roman Catholic

- Elizabeth I - Protestant

- Migration to avoid persecution

- England place of safety when Protestant

1500-1700 - Changes in economy

- Trading link with rest of the world

- E I (1600) - East India Trading Company - links with India

- C II (1600) - Company of Royal Adventurers trading to Africa - gold, silver, slaves

1500-1700 - Economic Causes - Huguenots

- Skilled workers - create wealth for William III to wage war with France

- 1700 - Relief committee raises £64,713 to help resettlement - WIII and wife donated over half

1500-1700 - Economic Causes - Palatines

- 1709 - Poor farmers experience bad harvest

- Londoners raised £20000 for refugees and MPs donated to charity by Queen Anne

1500-1700 - Economic Causes - Jewish people

- Englands economy was weak after the civil war - Jewish skilled workers wanted by Cromwell

1500-1700 - Economic Causes - African people

- 1440s - Portuguese merchants brought back slaves to Europe - Escaped/worked to freedom and migrated

- Great chain of being (English society) - Society dictated by wealth not skin colour

1500-1700 - Economic Causes - Indian people

- 1600 - EI sets up East India Company

- 1608 - first EIC ships leaves for India

- 1613-1690 - trading posts/factories in Surat, Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata

- Arrive in England as Nannies, servants, and sailors on EIC boats - employed by the officers

1500-1700 - Economic Causes - Dutch workers

- 1630 - CI invites Dutch drainage and embankment engineer to drain fens in EA - brought Dutch workers

1500-1700 - Economic Causes - Flemish weavers

- 1561 - Town of Sandwich invites them to live in town for 'men of knowledge' and boost economy

- 25 Flemish households, 407 migrants

1500-1700 - Economic Causes - Walleons

- 1575 - Inspired by Sandwich - Canterbury invites weavers

- 100 households, 750 migrants

1500-1700 - Political Causes - Huguenots

- 1681 - CII offers Denizen - right to live in England with certain rights of citizenship

- WIII invited to take throne by Parliament from (Catholic) James II

1500-1700 - Political Causes - Palatines

- Wars between German states - Migration to America after English Caroline company advertised it in Germany

1500-1700 - Political Causes - Jewish People

- 1655 - Cromwell allows to let J to return after 1290 royal expulsion

1500-1700 - Political Causes - African people

- Catherine of Aragon brings over women as part of her court

1500-1700 - Religous Causes - Huguenots

- St Bartholomew Day Massacre - 1572 - Catholic king killing Huguenots

- 1685 - Edict of Nantes 1598 revoked - forced to become Catholic - 1680s saw 40000-50000 arrive

- 1689 - WIII invites to Huguenots to strengthen Protestant presence in England

1500-1700 - Religous Causes - Palatines

- 1709 - Foreign Protestants Naturalisations act (FNPA) allowed Protestants to live in England with full rights if swore loyalty to the crown

1500-1700 - Religous Causes - Jewish people

- Puritan Cromwell allowed Jewish in to 'save them' - wanted them to convert

- 1648-58 - 100000+ Jewish murdered in Khmelnylsky uprising in Poland/ Ukraine

- European anti-Semitic actions common

- Cromwell allowed Jewish people to build synagogues - March 1656

1500-1700 - Religous Causes - African people

- 1568 - Rebellion of Alpujarras - failed against Catholics in Granada - Balck Muslim Spaniards arrive

1500-1700 - Religous Causes - Walloons

- Persecuted in the Netherlands by Spanish

1500-1700 - Huguenots Experience - Harmony

Range of skills so able to find work (finance, weaving, goods)

Many joined businesses of friends/family or set up own

William III supported them for many years - declaration had royal support

Who was Henri De Portal?

A successful Huguenot migrant

Migrated to Southampton in 1705

He set up his own paper mill in 1718

Won the monopoly to manufactured paper for the Bank of England in 1724

1500-1700 - Huguenots Experience - Conflict

Some were desperately poor so took to petty crime

1500-1700 - Palatines Experience - Harmony

1714 Sir Thomas Southwell uses own money/land to settle 130 families in his estates - others similar

1500-1700 - Palatines Experience - Conflict

Mainly agricultural labourers however they were not needed in England which led to lots of poverty

1709 - 3000 deported to Ireland where there was poor land quality and they were hated by Catholic majority

3000 sail to New York - Many died on route, from typhoid and immigrant hating mobs

1500-1700 - Jewish Experience - Harmony

1644 Gates of Hope boy's school for poor boys paid by synagogue fund

1701 the community grew and Bevis Marks large synagogue was built

1730 the Villa Real Girls school was built

Mendes de Costa family - successful bankers

1500-1700 - Jewish Experience - Conflict

Some were pedlars

In 1700, 1000 Jews in society dependent on richer people

Synagogues raised collections to look after Jews (relief system) shows that many new migrants were struggling

Antisematism - could not go to university, serve in the army or work as lawyers and the media depicted them as criminals

1500-1700 - Gypsies Experience - Harmony

They lived in tents where ever they chose

Moved whenever they wanted

Sometimes worked as farm labourers, entertainers and mended pots and pans

1500-1700 - Gypsies Experience - Conflict

The authorities regarded them as vagrants and disliked them as they brought no economic benefit to England

1530 - Henry VIII ordered them to leave within 16 days

1562 Elizabeth I said if they did not stay in one place they would be hanged

1500-1700 - African Experience - Harmony

They were well integrated into society and had normal jobs and lives

1687 John Blanke was a trumpeter for HVIII - shown in tapestry

1500-1700 - African Experience - Conflict

1700 Harry Johnson was advertised as purchasable slave

Having a black child as a servant was seen as a status symbol which shows how they were objectified this is similar to how Indian children were treated

1500-1700 - Indian Experience - harmony

Lascars:

Some settled in ports such as London and Liverpool

Some worked as sailors on different ships and many worked as labourers

Servants:

Some were treated with respect especially Indian children

1500-1700 - Indian Experience - Conflict

Some were left at their arrival ports as their employers preferred English servants

Though respected Indian Child servants were used status symbols

1500-1700 - Walloons Experience - Harmony

They brought new trades eg silk dying, diamond cutting, sugar refining so most people felt they weren't taking their jobs

The Walloon Congregation of Elders: 12 elders who worked closely with city authorities

Community grew rapidly - 1595 - 1/3 city

1588 helped prep defences against possible Spanish invasion

1500-1700 - Impacts - Culture

Mostly affected rich

As printers became more common reading more important and improved communications

1500 there were only 5 printers, all European owned- brought new ideas

Huguenots(weavers) - boosted the silk industry which became popular among the rich

Vergil, a priest sent by Pope in 1502 wrote 26 history books used in schools however extremely biased

Hans Holbein, Anthony Van Dyke, Peter Lely - famous migrant painters

Art became famous - helped diversity

1500-1700 - Impacts - Language

Huguenots brought new words (surnames, fabric names, road names)- the word vending from the french vendre

Jewish migrants - words related to the religion became more well known as communities grow (synagogue, rabbi, kosher)

1500-1700 - Impacts - Economy

Huguenots boosted cloth trade - new techniques, boosted fashion industry (1650-1700 there was a twentyfold increase in silk production)

Huguenots iron workers helped develop steel industry, started paper industry

123 Huguenots provided 10% of the capital for the Bank of England and 7 of 25 directors were Huguenots.

Huguenots knew about investment and national debt allowed gov to borrow money and to expand empire

Jewish migrants families Hart and Frank family wealthy - helped employ many

Moses Hart one of the 12 'Jew brokers' allowed to trade on royal exchange

Solomon de Medina financed the duke of Marlborough's campaigns. He was the first Jew to receive a knighthood

1500-1700 - Impacts - Geography/Agriculture

1630 Cornelius Vermuyden (Dutch drainage engineeer)was invited by Charles I to drain the Fens so it could become fertile farmland

Dutch workers straightened rivers and dug ditches, embankments and sluices, made dams, windmills, pumps -by 1642 40,000 acres drained for agricultural land

Fens changed to Farmland, Landscape, Crops, Oil mills, Lakes - most of which used in trade

1500-1700 - Impacts - Governance

Jewish had contracts to supply army with equipment

Funded William III 'Glorious Revolution' (Suasso)

Printing meant reading and writing became more important - church lost control with new ideas shared

1535 - 2/3 of workers in book trade were Europeans - HVIII imposed restrictions on foreigners

1500-1700 - Impacts - Religion

- Church no longer had control of literary spread in the country

- Huguenots helped bring tolerance - allowed their own churches

- Moses Hart helped built first Great Synagogue- felt he had to lose some identity to be English (trimmed beard and did not wear head covering)

- Huguenots - more tolerance

1700-1900 - Reasons - Economical

1750-1850 Industrial revolution - factory manufactured goods (more jobs)

Led to larger industrial towns (Glasgow, Birmingham, Manchester)

Urban population grew from 5 million to 32.5 million 1700-1900 (growing industrial towns ment easier for migrant communities to develop such as Chinatown in Liverpool)

New docks (Liverpool, London and Cardiff) - better trade - Britain used it's empire for materials

The British Empire reached it peak and by 1900 it ruled over 1/4 of the worlds population (increased contact with rest of world increased migration)

Sugar plantations in West Indies made merchants rich and port cities prospered due to slave labour in colonies (empire boosted economy so more people wanted to move to England)

1700-1900 - Reasons - Political

1832 Reform Act - gave vote to more men owning property/paying high rents and MPs to larger towns

1829 - Catholic Emancipation Act - allowed Catholics almost all rights of Protestants

1830s - Restriction lifted on Jews (1858 - Jewish could become MPs)

1807- Slave trade abolished

1700-1900 - Reasons - Transport

- Improved Roads - 1840s network of roads ran from London to all major cities

- 1820s - canal networks linked all manufacturing sights

- 1830 - Liverpool to Manchester railroad opened wich was faster and cheaper than the canal

- 1900 - 5 major railroad companies operated 22000 miles of track

- Railroads from Bristol to New York and Liverpool to Australia

Faster for people from Asia and Africa to move to Britain

Encouraged economic growth and increased jobs

1700-1900 - Reasons - Internal migrants

Higher wages in London

Evicted - 10000 tenant farmers and families

More exciting culture

1700-1900 - Reasons - Irish Migrants

Potato famine - food prices rise and crop destroyed

1845 1/3 crop destroyed and by 1846 whole crop destroyed

Britain exported food in an effort to help but this led to further shortages

1 million die from starvation and 2 million forced to migrate

The Irish industry collapsed as English factories were more efficient

Poverty high among Catholics - Catholic Emancipation Act in England 1829

Dublin close to Liverpool - had strong links to America

1700-1900 - Reasons - Jewish Migrants

Established communities - Whitechapel & Spitalfields - 1888 - 40%

Fleeing Russian Empire persecution from 1880-1900 over 100,000 Jews arrived in Britain

Jobs & Jewish free school

Gradual lifting of restrictions on Jews

Politics - 1855 first Jewish London mayor

1856 Jews allowed to study at Cambridge

1700-1900 - Reasons - African

Transatlantic slave trade - forced migration - 1807, 3.2 million

1750 Britain was the largest slave trading nation

Royal African Company - founded by CII and powerful figures invested

1700-1900 - Reasons - Asian Migrants

People moved for a better education

Indian Princes forced out by East India Company with riches

1700 - Indian servants migrated with colonial families - status symbol

Recruited by East India Company (Lascars) - poor conditions and wages

1700-1900 - Reasons - German

Avoid war between German states (similar to Italians)

British economy and strength and political freedom - skilled migrants

Political activists and thinkers had greater freedoms(Karl Marx)

1700-1900 - Reasons - Italian

Avoid war between Italian states

Changes in agriculture cause poverty

British healthier - severe outbreaks of Typhus and Cholera

1700-1900 - Jewish experience - harmony

- Worked in clothing, shoes, furniture - no specialised equipment

- Despite Jack the Ripper, drew attention to fix slums

1700-1900 - Jewish experience - conflict

- Leaders wanted them to learn English way

- House cramped with many generations

- Sweatshop workers worked long hours in bad conditions - little pay

- Believed Jewish we're dangerous and stealing jobs - increase attacks

- Believed Jack the Ripper was Jewish - Suspicious on Schochetim - ritual slaughterers

1700-1900 - African experience - harmony

- In theory free - no laws stating their position

- During American Independence war - many fought for Britain and offered freedom

- 1786 - Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor - set up to provide food and clothes

- Communities began to grow

- African sailors migrated - recruited to work in boiler rooms

1700-1900 - African experience - conflict

- Many that came after American war could not find work - begging

- Relief committee sent people back to Africa - stopped providing help

- Sailors willing to work in poorer conditions

1700-1900 - Asian experience - harmony

- Ayahs travelled with families from India - return ticket usually included

- Mid 19th - English women started hostel for abandoned Ayahs

- Lascars hired by EIC for ships found work in ports

- Hostels opened for destitute Lascars

1700-1900 - Asian experience - conflict

- Some Ayahs not given tickets - left to fend for themselves - many destitute

- Organisations wanted to convert Ayahs/ Lascars to Christianity

- Some Lascars abandoned in ports

1700-1900 - German experience - harmony

- Population spread across Britain

- Engineers and scientists set up small companies that prospered

- Smaller business set up also

1700-1900 - German experience - conflict

- Free thinkers (Freidrich Engels, Karl Marx) part of working class mass protest movements

1700-1900 - Irish experience - harmony

- Working as a Navvie hard and dangerous but had employment

- Many joined the army

1700-1900 - Irish experience - conflict

- Navvie job hard and dangerous - killed injured, poverty

- Lots of migrants put strain on city systems - disease spread, crowded housing

- Prejudice with work, religion, tension, wages etc.

1700-1900 - Italian experience - harmony

- Worked as street musicians - tricks, hurdy-gurdy, tamed monkeys

- Did hard work English did not want (eg laying asphalt)

- Developed skills from Italy - ceramics

- Small ice cream businesses able to develop in cities

1700-1900 - Italian experience - conflict

- Many street musicians young boys forced by gang masters

- Most farmers had to find new occupations

- General prejudices from the people

1700-1900 - Political Impact - African

- 1787 - Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade formed

- 18th Century - wrote about their experiences - essential for movement success

- Fear of riots, parliamentary campaign also important

1700-1900 - Political Impact - Irish

- Chartism - working class mass protest movement - members disappointed with reform act

- Feargus O'Connor - MP who became Chartist Leader

1700-1900 - Political Impact - German

- Karl Marx migrated with radical views - worked with Engels on communist manifesto

1700-1900 - Economic Impact - Irish

- After famished thousands travelled to Liverpool

- Took ships to America - expensive however

- Eventually dominated jobs at docks, opened own businesses, worked as Railway Navvies

-

1700-1900 - Economic Impact - Italian

- Worked as Navvies, railways and canals meant better trade

- Ice cream became popular business

1700-1900 - Economic Impact - German

- Reuter created telegraph system to get info quick to sell to newspapers - set up news agency

- Many set up companies - chemists, scientists etc

1700-1900 - Economic Impact - Jewish

- Involved in clothing trade

- Russian Jew Michael Marks joined by Tom Spencer to make Marks and Spencer's - still successful internationally