EDEXCEL A -LEVEL: SOUTH AFRICA UNIT 3
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70 Terms
- International movement that originated in the USA.
- Taking pride in black identity, history and culture.
- Refuse to accept white superiority .
- Refuse to accept help or cooperate with whites, even from
sympathetic whites - Blacks can achieve by themselves.
- Encouraged Indians and coloured people to see themselves as black and equally subject to white suppression.
- Learn about Black African heroes.
- Steve Biko encouraged Black Consciousness and created the
- SASO (South African Students Organisation) in 1969 who organised strikes and protests over inferior facilities at universities.
- 1973 - this movement started to inspire school children.
- 1973 - Biko was subject to a banning order as a result of the activities of another group, the South African Students' Movement (SASM)
- 1975- SASO banned and went underground.- Lack of educational opportunities
- Lack of educational opportunities
- Government forcing Africans to be taught in Afrikaans
- Overcrowding
- Underfunding as a result of government policies
- School students were increasingly frustrated by the lack of educational opportunities and by the 1970's, an increasing awareness that the purpose of school was largely to keep them in servitude rather than to offer opportunities for advancement
- Education for African children wasn't compulsory. This was due to the deputy Minister for Bantu Education, P Jackson, estimating in May 1977 that it would require the employment of 170,000 teachers at a cost of R216 Million to compulsory educate Africans, with a further R130 Million to provide necessary classrooms
- African children had to provide their own equipment while schools lacked the resources to teach pupils the skills necessary to access any but the most menial jobs
- The economic recession from the late 1960's made many realise the need for more skilled African workers, so as a result, more schools were built with 40 schools appearing in Soweto from 1972-1974, but still didn't meet demands
- Most African youth valued education highly as a means to escape poverty
- During the early 70's, government spending on African education per pupil slipped to 10% of that spent on white children since the growth in numbers
- This reduction in spending, compounded by dramatic increases in numbers of schoolchildren, led to massive overcrowding
- High school enrolment among African people increased by 150% between 1970-75 and class sizes would be as high as 70-100
- In Soweto in 1975, 3/4 of households accommodated children of school age
- In 1974, the minister for Bantu education and development, M.C Botha, introduced the Afrikaans Medium Decree, which made Afrikaans compulsory in schools from Standard Five (Year 6)
- In 1976, his hard line successor Andries Treurnicht insisted that half the lessons in African schools including maths should be taught in Afrikaans, a language that not all African children spoke and which was regarded as the language of repression
- The government decided this since their employers could well be African speakers, but underestimated the resentment this decision would cause
- In return, school children and their parents protested and provoked the uprising of 1976- In 1974, the minister for Bantu education and development, M.C Botha, introduced the Afrikaans Medium Decree, which made Afrikaans compulsory in schools from Standard Five (Year 6)
- In 1976, his hard line successor Andries Treurnicht insisted that half the lessons in African schools including maths should be taught in Afrikaans, a language that not all African children spoke and which was regarded as the language of repression
- The government decided this since their employers could well be African speakers, but underestimated the resentment this decision would cause
- In return, school children and their parents protested and provoked the uprising of 1976
- South West Township in Johannesburg.
- One of the biggest townships.
- Overcrowded, squalor and crime.
- Saw the creation of a school-based South African Students Movement (SASM) to campaign against poor-quality education.
- Organised boycotts
- SASM organised the Soweto protests in 1976.
- Conditions in overcrowded townships such as Soweto
- Influence of the Black Consciousness movement
- Conditions in schools and education
- Urbanisation
- Absence of the ANC
- Desmond Tutu, a religious leader, warned the government 3 weeks earlier that anger was at crisis point.
- In Soweto, for example, it was common for as many as twenty people to share a four-roomed house with minimal sanitation.
- Black Consciousness had given Africans more pride in themselves and their culture.
- In 1971, research proved that Africans felt more confident, especially the young, in comparison to earlier work which proved Africans felt inferior.
- Students were increasingly frustrated by the lack of education opportunities and by the 1970s an increasing awareness that the purpose of school was largely to keep them in servitude rather than to offer opportunities for advancement.
- Moreover, underfunding caused a lack of resources, a limited time of education, and overcrowding in schools.
- By the early 1970s, government funding had slipped to 10% of that spent on white children.
- More black Africans were likely to be literate - two thirds by 1970 - as a result of urbanisation.
- Over 75% read newspapers which made them more aware of events both within South Africa and elsewhere.
- Urban Africans became more sophisticated and less patient with the ways they were treated.
- The absence of leaders could of caused frustrations. ANC leader Oliver Tambo later realised there were few active units and no military presence inside Soweto, and communication between exiled leadership and townships was poor.
- Tambo argued there were links made when possible, such as Joe Gqabi working with the SASM, who was later assassinated by security forces.
- Others have argued that many of the organisers of the uprising had no concept of previous protests such as the Defiance Campaign or boycotts, and thought they were the first to defy the government.
13th June 1976 - SASM meet and organise an uprising to demonstrate against the medium of Afrikaans in teaching in Soweto.
16th June 1976 - Massive demonstration. Thousands of children took part in marches from their schools to a rally in the soccer stadium in Orlando, a central part of Soweto. The security forces attempted to disperse the marchers at the stadium with tear gas and warning shots and eventually with live bullets from machine pistols. 20 students died.
16th June 1976 - Protests spread to other areas in Transvaal, Natal and the Cape; at least 100 places were affected. The uprising continued until at least the end of the year. By October there had been at least 80 protests. The security forces may have killed as many as 1000 people as a result of the protests.
- Government held firm.
- Accused them of seeking Communist revolution.
- The official line remained that as the government provided the resources for African education it had the right to choose the form it would take.
- Banning orders, imprisonment, torture and the suppression of organisations.
- Protests continued despite brutality from security forces.
Government suppression (p.77)
Nature of opposition (p.78)
Young people join the armed groups (p.78)
Total strategy (p.79)
Armaments Corporation of South Africa (p.79-80)
International Reaction (p.80-81)
- The apartheid government responded to the uprising with harsh crackdowns. Security forces used violence to suppress further protests, leading to more deaths and injuries.
- The government tightened media control to limit information about the uprising. State media downplayed the violence and blamed it on agitators.
- Thousands of students and anti-apartheid activists were arrested. Many were detained without trial under the Terrorism Act and other apartheid laws.
- As the demonstrations continued, it became apparent that no central organisation was directing them (ANC or BCM)
- Most were localised, spontaneous and organised by school children themselves. This was a new feature of anti-apartheid protests, more dangerous due to its unpredictability
Consequence of Soweto Uprising: Young people join the armed groups
- Thousands of young people slipped away to join armed groups preparing for guerrilla warfare. With sympathetic regimes in power in Mozambique and Angola, the time was propitious for the return in armed struggle
- Both ANC and PAC actively recruited new cadres and advised them on how to illegally cross borders, where they headed for military training camps with the intention to infiltrate them back into SA
- The first incidents took place in autumn 1976, at Dikgale, where a train was sabotaged, and Bordergate, where there was a firefight between guerrillas and security forces, leaving two of the latter injured
- Although the ANC had been surprised by the Soweto Uprising,which may have taken place in part because of the absence of an effective ANC presence in Soweto, the ANC and PAC were nevertheless the beneficiaries
- In 1978, while still defence minister, P.W Botha stated that SA was facing a Total Onslaught, a concerted attack by Communist forces supported by the USSR
- He believed this could only be combated by a Total Strategy. One important effect of the uprising, therefore, was the development of this Total Strategy and reforms to the apartheid system.
- Botha's Total Strategy was explained by the Chief of South African Defence Force (SADF), General M.A Malan in 1977, that every aspect of society should be deployed against the perceived enemy
- This involved the restructuring of the government with the emphasis on security. Botha was helped in this by having been minister of defence for may years and having had good relations with the Chief of the SADF, Chief Malan
- In 1971, Botha established a National Management system to oversee government. There were 4 cabinet committees in charge of policy: economic affairs, social affairs, constitutional affairs and security
- Botha set up the State Security Council, compromised of army generals and police chiefs to oversee security. It was supported at local levels by joint management committees. The police and armed forces therefore worked together, sharing information and planning joint operations
- The security forces were also involved in clandestine operations: e.g, the assassination of activist Ruth First and the bombing of the ANC HQ in London in 1982
- Joint local management centres were set up and tasked with gaining two types of intelligence:
Hard intelligence - Knowledge of plots and insurrections
Soft intelligence - Ascertaining local grievances
- The Armaments Corporation of South Africa (ARMSCOR) was set up to bypass the world boycott on arms sales to South Africa. It developed the country's own arms industries
- By the 70's, SA was producing its own helicopters, armed vehicles and artillery. Despite the 1977 arms embargo, it acquired French help in building Mirage fighter bombers and British help in training South African military personnel in radar air-surveillance equipment
- One report in 1979 suggested no army in southern Africa could have lasted an afternoon against the SADF
- The minister of law and order, Adriaan Vlok, summarised the overall aim of security policy as removing the activists while addressing the genuine grievances which increased their support
- It was, therefore, recognised the two aspects were closely connected and knowledge was passed on to organisations which could address grievances. The police force meanwhile numbered 50,000
- Government reaction to the Soweto uprising led to widespread international condemnation of police brutality.
- The UN responded with Resolution 392 only 3 days after the initial killings, it condemned the government response and apartheid generally
- Many multicultural companies with subsidaries in SA were pressurised by anti-apartheid groups to withdraw
- On University campuses in the US and elsewhere, there were movements to encourage companies to withdraw their South African investments; many companies supported the campaign to oppose Bank loans to South Africa, which saw many funds withdrawn
- In November 1977, Polaroid withdrew completely from South Africa
- His early life
- His interest in Black Consciousness and the creation of SASO
- His arrest and death.
1946: Stephen (Steve) Bantu Biko was born in Tylden in the Eastern Province (now Eastern Cape) on 18 December 1946, the son of Mzingaye Biko and Nokuzola Macethe Duna, one of their five children.
1950: Mzingaye died suddenly and his mother raised the children on her own, working as a cook at Grey's Hospital. Biko was four when his father died.
Steve was quickly noted for his intelligence and jumped school grades
1964: Steve then went to Lovedale, where his brother Khaya was already a student. However, in April, Steve was taken into custody by the police, who came to the school to arrest Khaya. The police took both brothers to King William's Town, 60km away, and Khaya was charged for being a member of Poqo, the armed wing of the PAC. He was given a sentence of two years, with 15 months suspended, and served his term at Fort Glamorgan jail near East London.
Following Khaya's arrest, Steve was interrogated by the police and subsequently expelled from Lovedale after only attending for three months. This incident inculcated in Steve a "strong resentment toward White authority", which would shape his political career. Steve's brother found him a place at St Francis College.
1966: Steve was enrolled to Durban Medical School at the University of Natal Non European section . Steve lived in the Alan Taylor Residence, the segregated living quarters for Black students at Natal University. The Black Section had its own Students Representative Council (SRC), which was a member of the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). Steve was elected to the SRC in his first year, and became involved in NUSAS politics. Biko increasingly felt frustrated because the NUSAS was dominated by whites and followed apartheid procedures.
1968: Biko became more interested in the ideas of BC and in particular that non-white people could overcome apartheid by their own efforts. Biko became convinced that Black, Indian and Coloured students needed an organisation of their own, he helped found the South African Students' Organisation to fight for better conditions and opportunities. He became the President of the SASO. He inspired other black organisations such as the South African Students' Movement and a wider protest movement in the 1970s.
1973: He was banned by the apartheid government in February meant that he wasn't allowed to speak to more than one person at a time or to speak in public, was restricted to the King William's Town magisterial district and couldn't write publicly or speak with the media. People were forebidden to quote anything he said, including speeches or simple conversations. He went underground to avoid the ban and was arrested 4 times, often being held without trial.
1976: School pupils protest at Soweto. Influenced by Biko's ideas.
How did Steve Biko become an international figure?
1975: Biko was called as a defence witness in the trial of 9 young SASO activists accused of inciting hatred against white people.
- He used this as a platform to explain African grievances and why apartheid was doomed to failure.
- He attracted wide publicity and became an international figure.
- Whilst in police custody, Biko died on 12th September 1977 by being savagely beaten until collapsing with head injuries
- The police tried to cover up Biko's death by accusing him of attacking police officers during the interrogation and falling against a wall during a violent struggle
- No one was arrested or prosecuted since inquiry's found that he'd died from brain damage that was damaged from the journey to the hospital and that his death can't be attributed to any act or omission amounting to a criminal offence
- Biko's death was significant since he became the face of African protests and protests across the world in regards to his death
1912 - Creation of the ANC
1944 - ANCYL formed
1948 - Basic Policy
1949 - Programme of Action
1952 - Defiance Campaign
1955 - Freedom Charter
1956 - Treason Trial
1960 - ANC banned
1961 - Creation of MK
1963 - Rivonia Trial
1967 - Alliance with ZAPU
1969 - Morogoro Conference
A major political trial that took place in South Africa from 1956 to 1961, in which 156 anti-apartheid activists including Nelson Mandela were arrested and charged with treason by the apartheid government.
- ANC activities were concentrated in Tanzania and Zambia
- Luthuli was replaced as president of the ANC by Oliver Tambo after his death
- Tambo decided to set up base in Lusaka since it was a close proximity to SA
- The Wankie and Sipolilo Campaigns were routes created through Zimbabwe to SA, with the Wankie Campaign having one of the detachments being destroyed by Rhodesian forces and made others forcefully retreat to Botswana
-Results of these campaigns had both sides having heavy losses, the Zambian government being concerned about its role as a base for armed struggle and potential South African retaliation, the Lusaka manifesto being adopted by many African states that reiterated their antipathy to apartheid and led to Kaunda (President) demand Tambo to find a new home for Mk
- Chris Hani criticised Tambo and the ANC since he believes and knows there have been informal discussions with the members of Mk that they have lost confidence in the ANC leadership abroad
- Hani was exposed to political thought from a young age through his father, Gilbert Hani, who was active in the ANC and later sought asylum in Lesotho
- Hani became a member of the ANC's Youth League in 1957, with the conviction of the ANC's leaders in the 1956 Treason Trial being a main motivation for him
- In 1959 while at Fort Hare, He got exposed to the Marxist ideas and the scope and nature of the racist capitalist system, converting him to Marxism
- Hani was active in campus protests on the Extension of University Education Act (1959) which put an end to black students attending white universities and created separate tertiary institutions for Whites, Coloured, Blacks and Asians
- In 1961, Hani's frustration with the Apartheid system and the influence of leaders such as Bram Fischer and JB Marks, leading to join the underground South African Communist Party (SACP) and Mk in 1962
- In 1962, he was arrested at a police roadblock and had pamplets containing objections to the policy of detention without trial. He was charged under the Suppression of Communism Act
- In 1963, after a series of arrests for leaving and remaining in Cape Town while on bail, he was instructed to go to Jo'burg and was told to leave SA to undergo military training
- He left for the Soviet Union and returned in 1967 to take an active role in the Rhodesian bush war, acting as a political commissar in the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). He was present for 3 battles in the 'Wankie Campaign'
- After the failure of the campaign, Hani escaped for Botswana to only be arrested and detained for 2 years
- He returned to Zambia at the end of 1968 and continued to work for ZIPRA. His imprisonment left him critical of the ANC leadership to assisst him whilst he was in prison and demanded a conference (Morogoro) of all ANC ppl in exile
- Difficulties in exile
- Internal reorganisation and external legitimacy
- The impact of the death of Steve Biko
- Oliver Tambo and the ANC
- The global anti-apartheid movement and international boycotts
- Economic boycotts
What was it?
- After the ANC was banned in 1960 following the Sharpeville Massacre, many leaders and activists were forced into exile and so the ANC established a number of offices abroad and London became an important centre for the movement
- A number of exiles settled in Lusaka, Zambia and Tambo was largely based there in 1967
- Kenneth Kaunda, President of Zambia, was sympathetic to the ANC and their cause, Mk also moved to Zambia and was their base for the military excursions of the Wankie and Sipolilo campaigns in 1967 and 1968. This led to Mk being forced to leave in 1969
How did it strengthen the position of the ANC?
- ANC faced challenges, such as limited resources, isolation and maintaining morale among members
- Despite this, exile allowed the ANC to establish international links, gain support from sympathetic governments and train fighters abroad, which solidified its position as the lending anti-apartheid movement
What was it?
- Under Oliver Tambo, the ANC restructured, creating specialised departments and forming alliances
- Mk was launched as yhe armed wing of the ANC in 1969
- Diplomatic efforts earned support from countries and recognition by the UN as South Africa's legitimate representative
How did it strengthen the position of the ANC?
- The ANC restructured under Tambo's leadersip by creating the armed wing Mk and improving communication channels in Zambia - Tanzania
- By gaining recognition from international organisations like the UN, the ANC established itself as the legitimate voice of resistance
What was it?
- Highlighted the brutality of the Apartheid reign, USA and UK called to impose sanctions against Apartheid
- Death became a cry for anti-apartheid activists, led to a resergence against Africans
- Exposed violent actions that were used whilst he was beaten
How did it strengthen the position of the ANC?
- Biko's death in 1977 drew global attention to the brutality of apartheid
- While Biko represented BCM, his death indirectly strengthened the ANC aas it rallied more people to the anti-apartheid cause and highlighted the urgency of ANC led initiatives for liberation
What was it?
- He held together the ANC, a politicised exile movement which was scattered in different places, prone to ideological arguments, with some in the military wing and others not
- He was a quiet but determined man who tried to listen as well as lead, deeply conscious of the need of unity, held strongly to the ANC's philosophy of non-racialism and worked with exiles all over South African communities
- He fully recognised the value of multi-racial AAM, even though it retained a significant degree of independence from the ANC and drew in a disparate set of activists with many views. He realised the importance of international solidarity
How did it strengthen the position of the ANC?
- Tambo played a crucial role in uniting the ANC in exile
- He was instrumental in securing internal support from countries and organisations such as the USSR
- Tambo's leadership helped sustain the ANC during its years of exile and strengthened its global legitimacy
What was it?
- Movements were based in individual countries around the world
- During the 60’s, the British AAM had launched a wider range of boycotts by unions and guilds related to the arts to work alongside sporting and economic sanctions
- They were isolated from the world in sporting events like the Olympic games and World Cup
How did it strengthen the position of the ANC?
- Global campaigns including cultural, sporting and academic boycotts isolated South Africa
- The ANC capitalised on this by aligning itself with these movements,gaining moral and financial support worldwide and increasing pressure on the apartheid regime to negotiate
What was it?
- International sanctions reduced investments, trade and corporate presence in South Africa, weakening its economy
- These pressures demonstrated apartheid’s unsustainability and strengthened the ANC’s role as a liberation leader
- This started due to conservative Britain withdrawing from the UN arms boycott (1964) and opposing the idea of SA’s economic isolation in 1970
How did it strengthen the position of the ANC?
- Economic sanctions and boycotts severly weakened the apartheid government by reducing foreign investment and trade
- The ANC used these boycotts to highlight its goals and gain support from both domestic and international allies, emphasising the need for economic justice alongside the political liberation
- Structural Reform
- Troubles in the Bantustans
- National Party division and scandals
- Economic and population pressures
- Botha
- Growth of Black trade unionism
Structural Reform
Legislation of African trade unions and relation of influx control.
1979: Wiehann Report= black trade unions were recognised (to control them and clear contacts with whom employers negotiate with), given limited powers under the 1981 Industrial Conciliation Amendment Act.
Wiehann= African and white trade union given same rights, proposed African unions were registered with the government and have accounts audited, access to industrial court to settle disputes & strike after 30 day notification.
Problems for African unions: government given the right to refuse to register any unions it considered subversive or overtly political eg 1 African union official at Ford plant in Port Elizabeth was banned for 5 years for leading an unofficial strike.
The Wiehann Report was produced in response to shortages of silled workers and the need to recognise African trade unions, in order to control them and to have clear contacts with the employers could negotiate
White trade unions meanwhile began yo set up African unions alongside them. These of ten became the ones which were registered, leaving genuinly independent African unions outside the system
The authorities meanwhile continued to behave ruthlessly
Riekert Commission: 1979 advocated those Africans qualified to live in white areas (because of their skills)= receive preferential treatment eg more freedom to look for better jobs, right to bring families to live with them.
Riekert Commission: Section ten of Bantu (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act (1945): aim= build more stable, skilled African workforce. Estimated that half a million Africans, plus their dependants, would qualify out of a population of 18 million of South Africa as a whole: Aim - to build more stable, skilled African workforce.
However existing restrictions more rigorously enforced and even extended eg Riekert recommended Africans register for employment in their homelands. In 1978, 275,000 Africans were deported for pass offences, 5000 more than the previous year.
For the first time, white employers were fined for employing ‘illegal’ workers.They could have their cars impounded if found guilty of transporting them into SA. Despite restrictions ‘illegals’ continued to arrive with their being an estimated half a million living in Soweto alone in 1980
Ultimately reforms failed- limitations and faltering economy. Riekert failed to appreciate that the paucity of opportunities in the homelands meant it was economically profitable to work illegally in SA, even if theis meant prison
4 Bantustans were granted independence: Transkei (1976), Bophuthatswana (1977), Venda (1979) & Ciskei (1981).
There was an increase in the shortage of skilled workers, answer= recruits and train more Africans.
Botha’s policy= reform political situation and ease conditions for non-white people but without sacrificing white supremacy.
None of the bantustans were recognised by any country other than SA
All the bantustans were dependant on SA for subsides; neither were they ecnomically viable. By 1985, Transkei recieved 85% of its income directly from SA
Dividing into opposing wings
Indians favoured limited reform, more conservative, opposed all change
1978: Muldergate scandal- large sums of money siphoned off to pay got propaganda purposed in covert programme (Operation Senekal). Activities=purchase of English language newspaper ‘The Citizen’ to support the regime, bribes distributed to countries eg USA, Britain to promote regime and justify apartheid, some funds= perpetrators own uses.
Impact on government: Mulder resigned from NP, and formed the Conservative Party, scandal died away with demise of Vorster and Mulder from government. Paved the way for PW Botha (defence minister) to become PM.
Botha’s reforms: total strategy, constitutional reforms, structural reforms aimed at gaining support of non-white groups, abolition of many petty apartheid measures, security forces recruited more Indians, coloured people and Black SA’s, recruits= allocated housing and other benefits.
1970s- GDP increased less than population= people becoming poorer.
Economic and population pressures
Costs of maintaining and subsidising the Bantustans, were costly but with thecost of defence and the fluctuating price of gold in international markets, the economy was struggling. Increases in oil prices as a result of 1973 oil crisis.
Part of the problem was throughout the 70’s, GDP increased less than population, so people including white SA’s were becoming poorer. Inflation was never less than 10%
By 1977, more were migrating from SA than coming in and many of those who left were the most skilled. The white population fell from 21% of the whole at its peak in 1936 to 16% in 1980
1985: Transkei: 85% of income from SA.
Poverty
Those employed in Bantustans- 60%: subsistence agriculture, less than 10% of manufacturing and mining employed workers in Bantustans, 1973- 3% of SA GDP came form Bantustans.
Bophuthatswana: 19 separate areas of lands, hundred of km from each other, closest to economic independence- entertainment and casino complex, developments in technology and problems with economy=less unskilled labour needed, some white SA would provide unskilled labour so Africans were deported.
Bantustan leaders: unpopular, collaborators by own citizens and anti-apartheid groups, dictatorships protected by SA forces eg 1988 SA authorities restored Mangope after attempted coup.
Botha
As well as ‘Total Strategy’, Botha introduced consitutional reforms and structural reforms aimed at gaining the support of non-white groups. The abolition of many petty apartheid mesaues would follow later in the 1980’s
Botha was PM from 1978 but was a former defence minister who maintained strong relations with the security forces. Experts such as Malan had told him that the Security forces couldn't deal simultaneously with external threats and internal unrest.
The only solution was to give some non-white South Africans more of a stake in in Society by a policy that would extend the non-white middle class
Other reasons to reform:
The security forces needed more recruits. Indians, coloured people all Africans had been recruited Since 1968, but the late 70's Saw increases in numbers and more active involvement in Combat. When conscription had been extended to two years and the requirement to attend annual camps had been imposed with greater rigour, many employers had complained.
The answer was to recruit more non-white people into the Security forces. This would also have the added advantage of negating the idea that South Africa was fighting a war on Ricial Lines, Since the military campaigns would involve a mix of ethnicities
Most African Military recruits came from rural areas, while they were allocated housing and other benefits, comparatively few had sector residential rights. This was an incentive to perform well and avoid trouble: as they had no formal residential rights malcontents could be deported buck to the Bantustans
There was increasing shortages of skilled workers a shortfall of approx 100,000 by the beginning of the 1970's Clearly, the answer was to recruit and train more Africans. However, this was also predicated on infrarry houdby and Living conditions, Efforts were increasingly made to provide electricity and other services to those parts of the townships which could afford them and also to offer Security of home tenure.
In 1976, Africans could obtain 30 year leases on homes in the bounships, and in 1983 they were allowed to purchase them. It has been estimated that in 1970, 86% of the African Workforce was comprimited of migrants; by 1979, 68% was classed as stable Permenant residents
Botha's Policy was to reform the political Situation and ease conditions for the non-white people without sacrisicing white supremacy. He did this by esterday enough to now White SA's wetensure they worked with white SA'S to maintain the system and NP control.
Botha was prepared to compromise on A apartheid, particularly th terms of relaxations in petty apartheid, but not to share fower as such. He saw reform as a key part of the total strategy. Nonetheless, he didat want to sunda mentally change the system.
The Cost of Defence Commitments
South Africa Spent 1% of its GDP on defence in 1960; by the mid 60's this had risen to 1%, or 13% of total government expenditure. The SADF had doubled the size between 1960-1965, and continued to grow as its foreign commitments became more complex and widespread.
The SADF increased in numbers as its commitments grew during the 1970's. 12 In 1977, Conscription was extended to two years, with a requirement of 90 days attendance at annual camps for 8 years after demobilisation. The first Cohort affected by this extension (1979) was 1000 recruits Short. Non-attendees were to be punished more severely. Military expenditure meanwhite grew exponentially
As South Africa's neighbours won their independance and turned from support into hostility, its military commitments grews. In August 1975, South Africa onvided Angola to try to impose its Client organisation, UNITA, on that newly independant Country.
By 1977, military Spending peaked at 5% of GDP, with forces being deployed. both externally and internally as a result of the Soweto Uprising.
- Former allies of South Africa that were Portuguese colonies had now gained their independence. This led to a weakening in South Africa's control of its borders, particular with Angola and Mozambique.
- Zambia, Malawi, Botswana and Swaziland all relied on South Africa for trade and access to ports. South Africa controlled oil and electricity supplies to these neighbours and employed their surplus workers.
Angola
Situation:
SA during the 1970’s involved themselves in Angola where a civil war followed independance from Portugal
They supported the Pro-Western organisations UNITA and National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) against the Communist learning MPLA backed by the USSR and Cuba
South Africa's response:On 14th October 1975, SADF launched operation Savannah - a partial invasion. Also gave $14 million in arms to organisaions it supported
By 1975 December, 3000 SA troops were fighting in Angola often against 4000 Cubans who supported the MPLA. 3 SA colums aimed to capture Luanda but were thwarted by Cubans
Outcome:After the face of conflict and weaknesses of the UNITA and FNLA, US support shrank
In December, US support shrank and SA left Angola in July 1976, continuing offerincg more covert assistance to UNITA and FLA
Mozambique
Situation:
The Marxist FRELIMO Group took power in 1975
South Africa's response:SA joined Rhodesia in offering support to its rival RENAMO to little avail
Outcome:South Africa seemed to accept its existemce and in 1984, came to the Nkomati Accords, which ended the ANC presence there
Namibia
Situation:
SA had taken away the former German South West Africa as a mandate after WW1 and governed it as a colony.
In 1967, the UN formally ended mandate and in 1973 declared SA’s continued occupancy illegal and was given till 30th May to leave
South Africa's response:They didn’t leave and ignored the UN
Their motivation to keep control was for Namibia to act as a buffer zone between it and Angola to counter Communist threat from Angola
The MPLA supported the South West African People’s Organisation (SWAPO) guerillas
They were soon in a full scale war with them
Outcome:South AFrica was accused of attrocities in Namibia, notably the attack on Kassinga refugee camp in May 1975
Peace negotiations took place in 1989 folloqing UN Resolution 435
Rhodesia
Situation:
SA gave aid to Rhodesian forces fighting against independant groups.
However, when Angola and Mozambique gained independance, the SA government felt Rhodesian regime was unstainable
South Africa's response:
Began focusing its efforts, with little success on convincing the white supremacist government to negotiate with more moderate black groups
Outcome:In 1980, Rhodesia became officially independant and became Zimbabwe
- Apartheid remained unpopular and had been condemned since the National Party victory in 1948 by the United Nations.
- However, Sharpeville and the decolonisation progress in Africa led to growing protest.
- South African government did little to appease condemnation through its non-compromise.
- The call for economic sanctions was widespread. Eg Britain held a month long boycott of South Africa goods in March 1960.
- UN Resolution 1761 in November 1962 - setting up a Special Committee against apartheid and calling for economic sanctions.
- Many Western countries refused to join. As members of the Security Council, Britain, France and the USA had the power of veto which they used to prevent sanctions becoming mandatory.
Why did the calls for economic sanctions fail between 1968 and 1983? Page 101
By the end of the 70’s SA was incresingly politically isolated internationally. While many governments opposed sanctions, they were aware that apartheid was unpopular with many in their populations
Officially they encouraged SA to reform and suggested that continued links were the best way to do this; privately, they were more critical of the apartheid regime
South Africa maintained close ties which also felt isolated: Taiwan and Israel, both of which continued to supply arms to South Africa despite the UN embargo of 1977
What was the Arms embargo - 1963, 1977?
- Arms sales had sanctions which were mandatory
- The UN had called for a voluntary arms embargo as early as 1963. However, it didn’t become mandatory until 1977, with Resolution 418, after widespread condemnation of the brutality with which the regime dealt with the Soweto Uprising
- However, other groups had made their own embargoes. The 1971 Commonwealth Conference, for example, saw a resolution against arms sales and a projected deal by which Britain would supply helicopters and frigates was abandoned
How did South Africa become isolated in terms of sporting and cultural links?
Boycotts had began in the 1960’’s with South Africa being suspended from the 1964 Olympic Games and formally excluded in 1970. These were keenly felt throughout the nation
Overseas South African tours often attracted disruption. The SA government itself had banned tours if they included non-white players: in 1968 it banned the English Cricket team because it included Basil D’Olivera, originally a coloured South African
The government had banned a New Zealand rugby tour in 1967 on the grounds that it included Maoris; tjis was recinded in 1970 when Maorri players were declared honourary whites
The acclaimed SA runner Zola Budd had to take out British citizenship in order to compete in international competitions
The Commonwealth passed the Gleneagales Agreement in June 1977, which forbade members competing against South Africa in any sporting activity
New Zealand faced considerate criticism when it invited the South African rugby team to tour in 1981
Generally, SA was isolated in terms of sporting and cultural links. Many called for a worldwide boycott of South Africa as well as economic sanctions
What was the Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM)?
- The AAM was a organisation that was at the centre of the international movement opposing South Africa’s apartheid laws against non-white people
- Formed on the 26th June 1959 in London
- The orginal focus of the AAM was to campaign for the British government ban on the sale of arms to South Africa
- The AAM opposed/protested against apartheid by protesting by the House of Commons and other government buildings and boycotting SA goods
Note 
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