U1a Vocab: Biological Structures (AP Psycholugy)

1.1 through 1.4 of AP Psychology updated textbook

Nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science views traits and behaviors as arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

Natural Selection

the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

enviornment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us

heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

genes

the biochemical units of heredity

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism

identical (monozygotic) twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

individuals who developed form separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they shared a prenatal environment.

dizygotic twins

fraternal twins

monozygotic twins

identical twins

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

epigenetics

“above” or “in addition to” (epi) genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (Without a DNA change)

nervous system

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system.

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

CNS

central nervous system

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

PNS

Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs

sensory (Afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

afferent nuerons

sensory neurons

efferent neurons

motor neurons

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.sk

skeletal nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the somatic nervous system.

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the a glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses that body, mobilizing its energy

Parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex.

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life suport center

dendrites

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulse hop from one node to the next

glial cell (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.a

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

all-or-none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing

synapse

the junction between the axon top of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

“morphine within”; natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action.

endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods

substance use disorder

a disorder characterized by continued substance abuse despite resulting life disruption

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect

addiction

an everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as out-of-control gambling) that continue despite harmful consequences. (See also substance use disorder)

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing and addictive drug or behavior

barbiturates

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

opioids

opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

hallucinogens

psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absences of sensory input.

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

neuroplasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

lesion

tissue destruction. Brain lesion may occur naturally (from disease or trauma), during surgery, or experimentally (using electrodes to destroy brain cells)

EGG (electroencehalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. It is commonly used to diagnose conditions such as epilepsy and other brain disorders.

MEG (Megnetoencephalography)

a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity

CT (computed tomography) scan

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure.

PET (positron emission tomography)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft issues. These scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. These scans show brain function as well as structure.

hindbrain

consists of the medulla, pons and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance

midbrain

found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information

forebrain

consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activitiesbr

brainstem

the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival function

medulla

the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing.

thalamus

the forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal

cerebellum

the hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement outpu5 and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

hippocampus

a neural center int he limbic system that helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts and events — for storage

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center

frontal loves

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. They enable linguistic processing, muscles movements, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning (such as making plans and judgements)

parietal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the hear and toward the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lysing at the back of the head; it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

temporal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lysing roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear. They also enable language processing.

motor cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movementsof specific body parts by sending signals to the muscles.

somatosensory cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that register and processes body touch and movement sensations.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, but rather are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

neurogenisis

the formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that separates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.