Cultural Diffusion, Religions, and Rituals: Key Concepts in World Societies

Diffusion

The spread or exchange of cultural traits between societies in contact with one another.

Acculturation

Adopting the traits of another culture, usually when one culture is more dominant or powerful.

Assimilation

When a weaker culture loses its identity and traditions, merging into a dominant culture.

Syncretism (Hybridization)

The blending or fusion of two or more cultural or religious systems to form something new. Example: Vodou (Haiti) and Santeria (Cuba/Brazil) combine Catholicism with West African traditions.

Vodou

A syncretic religion in Haiti blending West African religion and Catholicism; focuses on spirits called loa.

Santeria

A Cuban/Brazilian syncretic faith combining Yoruba religion with Catholicism; worships orishas (deities).

Indus Valley Civilization

One of the world's earliest urban civilizations (Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa); known for planned cities, ritual baths, and goddess figurines.

Mohenjo-Daro / Harappa

Major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization; show early evidence of ritual and social organization.

Shiva (Proto-Shiva)

Early seal images possibly show a three-faced deity in meditative pose, thought to be a forerunner of the Hindu god Shiva.

Vedas

The oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, written in Sanskrit; consist of hymns, rituals, and prayers.

Rig Veda

The oldest Veda; hymns to gods for use in sacrifice.

Sanskrit

The ancient Indo-European language of the Vedas and classical Hindu texts.

Varna

"Color" or social class; the four castes in Hindu society.

Brahmins

Priests and scholars.

Kshatriyas

Warriors and rulers.

Vaishyas

Merchants and farmers.

Shudras

Laborers and craftsmen. (Dalits = outcastes, below all varnas.)

Indra

Storm god; slayer of chaos monster Vrtra; brings order.

Agni

God of fire and sacrificial ritual; carries offerings to other gods.

Soma

Deified plant or drink granting immortality and divine vision.

Varuna & Mitra

Guardians of cosmic order (rta).

Brahman

In early Vedic thought, the sacred power in rituals and mantras; later, the ultimate spiritual reality of the universe.

Vishnu

Preserver god; restores balance to the cosmos through avatars (incarnations like Krishna or Rama).

Shiva

God of destruction, transformation, and meditation; often shown as a dancer or yogi.

Parvati

Goddess of love and motherhood; consort of Shiva; mother of Ganesh.

Kali

Fierce goddess of time and destruction; represents power of death and rebirth.

Devi

"The Goddess"; the supreme feminine energy, appearing as many goddesses (Parvati, Durga, Kali, Lakshmi, Saraswati).

Upanishads

Philosophical Hindu texts emphasizing internal spiritual knowledge over external ritual.

Atman

The inner self or soul.

Atman = Brahman

The teaching that the individual soul and universal reality are one and the same.

Samsara

The continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

Karma

Moral cause and effect; one's actions determine one's future rebirths.

Dharma

Duty, moral order, or right behavior according to one's caste and stage of life.

Moksha

Liberation or release from the cycle of samsara; spiritual freedom.

Monism

The belief that all things are ultimately one spiritual reality.

Dualism

The belief that the soul and ultimate reality (or God and world) are distinct.

Bhagavad Gita

A section of the epic Mahabharata where Krishna teaches Arjuna about duty, devotion, and detachment.

Arjuna

The warrior prince conflicted about fighting in a war; represents moral struggle.

Krishna

Avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu who teaches Arjuna; represents divine love and duty.

Avatar

A divine incarnation or embodiment of a deity, especially Vishnu.

Dharma (in the Gita)

One's moral and social duty that must be performed without attachment to results.

Maya

Illusion; the mistaken perception that material reality is ultimate.

Bhakti

Devotion or loving worship toward a personal god or goddess.

Puja

Ritual offering or act of devotion to a deity.

Prasada

Blessed food or offerings received back from a deity during worship, symbolizing divine grace.

Laws of Manu

Ancient Hindu text describing moral rules, caste duties, and the four stages of life for men.

Four Stages of Life

Student, householder, forest hermit, renunciant.

Vedanta

A Hindu philosophical school based on the Upanishads; focuses on the unity of Brahman and Atman.

Advaita Vedanta

Non-dualistic Vedanta school (founded by Shankara); teaches that only Brahman is real, the world is illusion.

Darshan

"Seeing" the divine; viewing and being seen by a deity during worship.

Sruti

"Heard" sacred texts (Vedas, Upanishads).

Smrti

"Remembered" texts (laws, epics, traditions).

Jainism

Religion emphasizing non-violence, truth, and asceticism; no creator god.

Mahavira

Founder and last tirthankara ("crossing maker") of Jainism.

Tirthankara

Spiritual teacher who has achieved liberation and guides others.

Jina

"Conqueror"; one who has conquered worldly passions to reach enlightenment.

Ahimsa

Non-violence toward all living beings.

Karma (Jainism)

A physical substance that clings to the soul and must be removed for liberation.

Moksha (Jainism)

Liberation achieved by eliminating karma through asceticism.

Five Great Vows (Virtues)

Non-injury (Ahimsa), Truthfulness, Non-stealing, Celibacy, Non-possession.

Preek Chinha

Jain symbol showing the soul's journey through different existences and the path to liberation.

Sikhism

Religion founded by Guru Nanak (1469-1538) combining elements of Hinduism and Islam.

Guru Nanak

Founder of Sikhism; taught devotion to one God and equality of all people.

Adi Granth / Guru Granth Sahib

The sacred scripture of Sikhism, compiled by Arjan Dev.

Arjan Dev

Fifth Guru; compiled Sikh scriptures.

Gobind Singh

Tenth Guru; transformed Sikhism into a disciplined warrior community.

The True Name (Sat Nam)

Sikh term for the one divine reality (God).

Langar

Communal meal in Sikh temples emphasizing equality.

Karma and Samsara (in Sikhism)

Belief in rebirth and moral cause and effect, but liberation (mukti) comes through God's grace.

Myth

A sacred story expressing a culture's worldview, involving gods or heroes.

Origin Myth

Explains beginnings of the world or people.

Hero Myth

Centers on a heroic figure's journey and trials.

Apocalyptic Myth

Describes the end of an age or world cycle.

Franz Boas

Recorded myths through fieldwork; created ethnographic databases.

Bronislaw Malinowski

Viewed myths as tools for teaching morality and explaining social rules.

Claude Lévi-Strauss

Saw myths as reflections of binary oppositions in human thought (e.g., male/female, life/death).

Oral Tradition

Storytelling through spoken word; adaptable and performative.

Written Tradition

Fixed in text; preserves authority but less adaptable over time.

Apologetics

Attempts to defend religious traditions, sometimes by reinterpreting outdated texts.

Redaction

Editing or rewriting of religious texts over time.

Ritual

Symbolic, repeated actions that express or reenact sacred meanings or myths.

Calendrical Rituals

Based on time cycles (e.g., Passover, harvest festivals).

Hunting/Gathering Rituals

Thank animals or spirits for food (e.g., Inuit seal offering).

Protective (Apotropaic) Rituals

Ward off danger (e.g., sea journey rituals).

Rites of Intensification

Reinforce social values during crises (e.g., funerals).

Healing (Therapy) Rituals

Use ritual and medicine for wellness.

Anti-Therapy (Cursing) Rituals

Harm others (e.g., sorcery, bone-pointing).

Sacrifice/Offerings

Gifts to gods or ancestors to gain favor.

Rites of Passage

Rituals marking a person's transition from one status to another (e.g., birth, marriage, death).

Separation

Leaving the old status.

Liminality

The "betwixt and between" phase of transition, often seen as spiritually powerful.

Reincorporation

Rejoining society with a new identity.

Pilgrimage

Journey to a sacred place (e.g., Islamic Hajj to Mecca).

Tabu (Taboo)

Forbidden actions or restrictions based on sacred laws (e.g., dietary or menstrual taboos).

Egungun

Yoruba ancestral spirit rituals in West Africa honoring the dead.

Soul (Concept of)

Different cultures have varying views: some believe in multiple souls; others link souls to animals or ancestors.

Reincarnation (Buddhist View)

Continuation of mind or personality, not an eternal soul.

Reincarnation (Hindu View)

The immortal soul (Atman) reborn until reaching moksha.