Behavioral, Genetics, Emotion & Motivation & Stress

Components of the Brain

Brains are composed of neurons, glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia), blood vessels, and extracellular matrix.

DNA Code

The DNA code provides instructions for making proteins through the processes of transcription and translation.

Neuronal Diversity

Neuronal diversity arises from genetic factors, epigenetic modifications, and environmental influences during development.

Brain Blueprint Conservation

While the core principles of brain organization are conserved across species, specific differences contribute to unique species functions.

Impact of Minor DNA Variations

Small differences in the DNA sequence, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms, can lead to significant functional changes by altering protein production or regulation.

Genotype vs Phenotype

Genotype refers to an organism’s genetic makeup, while phenotype is the collection of observable traits resulting from the interaction of the genotype and the environment.

Gene Interactions

Genes do not work in isolation—they interact in networks and systems, and their expression is affected by other genes and environmental factors.

Gene-Environment Interaction

The interplay between genes, phenotypes, and environments where genetic potentials are expressed differently depending on environmental influences.

Epigenetics

Studies heritable changes in gene expression that occur without alterations to the underlying DNA sequence, often through chemical modifications such as DNA methylation.

Heritability

The proportion of observed differences in a trait among individuals that can be attributed to genetic differences.

Twin Studies & Heritability

Twin studies show that many traits have a significant genetic component, given that monozygotic twins are more alike than dizygotic twins.

Controversies in Heritability

Heritability is complex because it does not capture environmental contributions and is often misunderstood, leading to oversimplified views of genetic influence.

Limits of Genotype-Phenotype Prediction

Even with detailed genetic information, predicting a phenotype accurately is challenging due to complex gene interactions and significant environmental influences.

Genetics of Neuropsychiatric Disorders

Many neuropsychiatric disorders have a genetic basis, though environmental, developmental, and epigenetic factors also play major roles.

Emotion

An emotion is a complex psychological state that includes a subjective experience, physiological responses, and expressive behaviors.

Components of Emotion

Emotions consist of subjective feelings, autonomic (physiological) responses, and somatic (muscle/behavioral) responses.

Functions of Emotions

Emotions help motivate behavior, aid in decision-making, and communicate internal states to others.

Evolutionary Emotion (Darwin)

Darwin proposed that emotions evolved as adaptive mechanisms to enhance survival, particularly by facilitating social communication and rapid responses to environmental challenges.

Facial Expressions

Facial expressions are critical nonverbal signals that convey our emotional state and help guide social interactions.

Ekman’s Basic Emotions

Ekman identified several basic emotions—happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, surprise (and sometimes contempt)—each with distinct and universal facial expressions.

Ekman’s Research Methods

Ekman’s research involved cross-cultural observations, analysis of facial expressions, and the measurement of corresponding physiological responses.

Innate Nature of Emotions

Evidence for the inborn nature of emotions includes the universality of facial expressions across cultures and the early emergence of emotional responses in infants.

Display Rules

Display rules are culturally learned guidelines that dictate which emotions are appropriate to express in specific social situations.

Discrete vs Dimensional Emotions

The discrete approach categorizes emotions as distinct states, while the dimensional approach views them along continuous scales such as arousal and valence.

Contributors to Happiness

Happiness is influenced by genetic predispositions, intentional activities (like practicing gratitude), and life circumstances or events.

Changing Happiness

Interventions like mindfulness, cognitive-behavioral techniques, and engaging in meaningful activities can help alter one’s level of happiness.

Emotional Responses & Dimensional Approach

The dimensional approach explains that responses to images vary along dimensions such as arousal and valence, with differences seen in populations (e.g., psychopaths may show reduced responses; phobics, heightened responses).

Stress in College Students

A large number of college students experience significant stress due to academic pressures, social relationships, and financial concerns.

Major Sources of Stress

Stress commonly arises from academic challenges, interpersonal conflicts, and life transitions or financial difficulties.

Stress

The body’s response to perceived challenges or threats, involving physiological, cognitive, and emotional changes.

Type A Personality

Characterized by competitiveness, urgency, hostility, and high levels of stress.

Type B Personality

Defined by a more relaxed, patient, and easy-going nature.

Personality Traits & Heart Disease

Traits such as hostility, competitiveness, and chronic stress—often observed in Type A personalities—are linked to an increased risk of coronary heart disease.

Stress and Physical Health

Chronic stress can impair immune function, elevate blood pressure, and contribute to the development of chronic illnesses like heart disease.

General Adaptation Syndrome

A model of the stress response encompassing three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Y

Primary stress appraisal

Evaluating whether a event is a threat, challenge, or harmless

Secondary stress appraisal

Evaluating whether you have the resources available to cope with the stressor