Developmental psychology

Developmental Psychology

the scientific study of the physical, cognitive, social, and moral changes and growth of humans from conception to death.

Nature vs. Nurture

the debate over whether genetics or environmental factors strongly influence human traits and behavior.

Stability vs. Change

the debate over which traits are most likely to remain consistent across the lifespan and which traits are most likely to change.

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

the debate over whether human development occurs gradually over time or as a series of distinct stages.

Developmental Psychologist

a career field in psychology in which individuals seek to understand how individuals develop over time and determine whether differences among age groups are related to changes in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral abilities.

Cross-Sectional Research

a research design that compares groups of people who differ in age at a single point in time. This method offers advantages such as quicker results and lower costs, with a minimal participant dropout rate due to the short study duration.

Cohort

individuals born during the same period and thus share similar social, cultural, and historical influences during their formative years.

Cohort Effects

a problem in cross-sectional research when observed differences between groups are not related to age but instead result from the specific historical and cultural context in which each age group grew up.

Longitudinal Study

a research design that involves studying the same group of individuals over a lengthy period to examine changes in the development of behaviors and attitudes related to growth and aging.

Germinal Stage

The first phase of prenatal development, encompassing the first two weeks after conception. During this time, implantation occurs and the placenta begins to form.

Embryonic Stage

The second stage of prenatal development, lasting from two weeks until 8 weeks. During this time, the nervous system, major organs, and body parts begin to form. The developing embryo is especially vulnerable to teratogens.

Fetal Stage

The third stage of prenatal development, lasting from 9 weeks until birth. During this time the developing fetus undergoes rapid growth, organ maturation, and brain development, while gaining the ability to move and respond to stimuli.

Teratogen

Any environmental factor that can cause harm to the fetus if exposure occurs during pregnancy. These include alcohol, drugs, radiation, chemicals, or diseases.

Rooting Reflex

Reflex in which newborns open their mouth and turn towards a touch to their cheek to aid in feeding.

Babinski Reflex

Reflex in which newborns stretch their toes outward when the soles of their feet are touched.

Moro Reflex

Reflex in which startled newborns extend their limbs outward and then pull them back in, possibly to grab onto something or brace themselves.

Maturation

The biologically determined, orderly, and time-related growth processes for when parts of the body and brain develop.

Developmental Norms

The milestones indicating the average age when children typically achieve skills associated with a particular stage of development.

Gross Motor Skills

Physical abilities that involve gaining control over large muscle activities such as moving one's arms and walking.

Fine Motor Skills

Physical abilities that involve detailed, highly controlled, coordinated movements of the smaller muscles, such as buttoning a shirt, typing, or writing.

Habituation

A form of learning in which there is a decrease in responsiveness (behavior) to stimuli that have been presented repeatedly.

Sensory Adaptation

The reduced sensitivity or perception of a stimulus resulting from extended and continual exposure. It occurs because receptor cells are being constantly stimulated by the same stimuli, leading to a loss of sensitivity.

Visual Cliff Experiment

Experiment conducted by Gibson and Walk in 1960, tested depth perception in infants by placing them on a glass-covered platform with an apparent drop-off, and results showed that most infants hesitated or refused to crawl over the steep side, indicating an innate ability to perceive depth.

Critical Period

A specific early developmental stage in life where individuals can most effectively acquire essential skills necessary for normal development. The presence or absence of specific experiences has a profound and irreversible impact on development.

Sensitive Period

A developmental stage when acquiring a skill or characteristic is easier and more efficient. Although learning and development can still occur outside these periods, it often becomes more challenging.

Imprinting

The phenomenon in which some organisms are biologically programmed to form an attachment to and follow the first moving object that they see.

Temperament

The biologically influenced activity level, behaviors, and emotional responses that individuals typically demonstrate.

Easy Temperament

Temperament characterized by a child who consistently displays positive emotions, adjusts to changing circumstances, and has regular sleeping and eating patterns.

Difficult Temperament

Temperament characterized by a child who demonstrates negative emotions more frequently, has trouble with changes in their environment, and who does not have regular eating and sleeping routines.

Slow-To-Warm-Up Temperament

Temperament characterized by a child who is less active, experiences some negative emotions, and adjusts to changes slowly. They have a cautious disposition and react wearily to new situations, but eventually come to enjoy them.

Combination Temperament

Temperament in which an individual exhibits characteristics from multiple temperament types rather than fitting into a single category.

Shy-Bold Continuum

Theory that suggests that some individuals in a group will be more cautious of new stimuli and new people and are less likely to explore novel stimuli, and others will be more likely to take risks.

Attachment

The long-lasting emotional bond between the infant and caregiver that provides the child security and comfort.

Separation Anxiety

The fear, distress, and unhappiness experienced by children who have been separated from their primary caregivers. It begins around 6 to 8 months and diminishes by age 3.

Stranger Anxiety

The fear, distress, and unhappiness experienced by children when they are around people they do not know well. It begins around 8 months and continues until around age 2.

Contact Comfort

The close physical touch that occurs between an infant and caregiver that leads to successful attachment.

Strange Situation Test

A research technique created by Mary Ainsworth that is used to evaluate infant/caregiver attachment through a series of separations and reunions.

Secure Attachment

Attachment type in which the child uses the parent as a secure base to explore, is visibly upset when the caregiver leaves, and is easily calmed upon being reunited with the parent.

Insecure Avoidant Attachment

Attachment type in which the child seeks little contact with the caregiver and is less likely to explore the environment, shows little distress or emotion when the caregiver leaves, and avoids or ignores the parent when they return.

Insecure Anxious Attachment

Attachment type in which the child is nervous and unsure whether to explore with the caregiver present, is visibly distressed when the caregiver leaves, and resists being comforted when the caregiver returns.

Insecure Disorganized Attachment

Attachment type in which the child displays inconsistent and contradictory behaviors in the strange situation test and is generally anxious and confused.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's first stage of psychosocial development in which infants who are nurtured and loved develop a sense of security and basic optimism about others. Infants whose needs are not reliably met will be suspicious of others, timid, and withdrawn.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson's second stage of psychosocial development in which toddlers need to be provided with opportunities to demonstrate control over their world in order to develop independence. Toddlers who fail to have successes or are restricted by overprotective parents doubt their abilities to care for themselves.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Erikson's third stage of psychosocial development in which preschool children who are exposed to a larger social world and engage in planning activities and pretend play develop confidence in their ability to make decision and engage in purposeful behavior. Children who are criticized or are prevented from planning activities develop a sense of anxiousness and fear.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth stage of psychosocial development in which school-age children who master knowledge and social skills required for success develop a sense of themselves as competent, which results in high self-esteem. School-age children who have problems learning or mastering social skills may develop a sense of inadequacy and disappointment, which results in low self-esteem.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Erikson's fifth stage of psychosocial development in which adolescents must develop a defined sense of self or else they will become confused about who they are and how they fit into the wider world.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erikson's sixth stage of psychosocial development in which young adults either develop strong, healthy relationships that are open and warm or experience loneliness.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson's seventh stage of psychosocial development in which middle-aged adults who take an active role in society through family or career establish feelings of usefulness and accomplishment. Middle-aged adults who do not develop investment or connection to the world experience a lack of fulfillment because they have not made a difference for future generations.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erikson's eighth stage of psychosocial development in which older adults reflect on life experiences and either evaluate them favorably because they believe their life was successful and meaningful or they experience anger and depression because they feel that their life was wasted or meaningless.

Schema

A cognitive structure or framework that organizes past experiences to make faster or more accurate perceptions.

Assimilation

The cognitive task of incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing them.

Accommodation

The process of changing existing schemas or creating a new schema to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

Stage of cognitive development spanning the first two years of life in which an infant learns about the world through sensory experiences and develops a sense of object permanence.

Object Permanence

An understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched directly.

Preoperational Stage

Stage of cognitive development spanning ages 2-7 in which children begin to engage in symbolic play and develop language skills that allow them to represent objects and ideas mentally. However, their thinking is still largely intuitive and egocentric, which makes it challenging for them to perform logical operations such as understanding conservation or considering multiple perspectives.

Centration

The tendency of a preoperational child to focus on only one aspect of a problem, which leads to cognitive errors and the failure to successfully complete conservation tasks.

Irreversibility

A cognitive error during Piaget's preoperational stage in which children cannot understand how to mentally reverse an action, which contributes to their inability to successfully complete conservation tasks.

Egocentrism

The inability of children in the preoperational stage to understand the perspective of another person.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects have feelings and emotions, which is present in the preoperational stage.

Artificialism

The belief of a child in the preoperational stage that humans or other beings create natural phenomena.

Solitary Play

A style of play in which children are physically near others, but they are absorbed in their own play-related activities and are not paying attention to what children around them are doing.

Parallel Play

A style of play in which children play alongside others and are aware of what other children are doing, though they do not directly communicate and interact.

Concrete Operational Stage

Stage of cognitive development spanning ages 7-11 in which children begin to think logically about tangible objects and events and develop skills such as understanding conservation and reversibility.

Conservation

The knowledge that the mass, volume, weight, and quantity of an object does not change, even if the appearance has been altered. This understanding is grasped by the concrete operational stage.

Reversibility

The ability to mentally undo an action, or the understanding that what goes in one direction can go in another. This awareness is grasped by the concrete operational stage.

Formal Operational Stage

Stage of cognitive development beginning at age 12 in which individuals develop the ability to think abstractly and reason logically about hypothetical situations, problems, and concepts. They can systematically plan, think about potential outcomes, and actively monitor their own thought processes through metacognition, allowing for advanced problem-solving and critical thinking.

Abstract Thought

A cognitive ability of the concrete operational stage that involves the capacity to conceptualize ideas and relationships that are not tied to concrete objects or direct sensory experiences, enabling individuals to engage in hypothetical reasoning, test theories, and consider intangible concepts like justice, freedom, and morality.

Hypothesis Testing

A type of thought characteristic of the formal operational stage in which individuals evaluate the truth or falsity of abstract propositions beyond mere appearances.

Metacognition

The awareness of ones own cognitive processes, often involving a conscious attempt to control them, which is characteristic of the formal operational stage.

Theory of Mind

The understanding that other people do not have the same thoughts and feelings that we do, which leads to a decline in egocentric thought.

False Belief Test

An experimental procedure that assesses whether a young child can see how another's perspective differs from their own.

Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what an individual can accomplish on their own, and what they can accomplish with the help of a more knowledgeable other.

Scaffolding

An instructional method based on the work of Lev Vygotsky that involves providing the learner with just enough assistance to allow for mastery of a skill, eventually leading to self-sufficiency.

Private Speech

Self-directed speech that helps children organize, guide, and regulate their thinking and actions.

Identity Diffusion

Marcia's identity state in which an individual has not explored or committed to a defined sense of self.

Identity Foreclosure

Marcia's identity state in which an individual made a commitment to an aspect of their identity without prior exploration.

Identity Moratorium

Marcia's identity state in which an individual actively explores aspects of their identity and has not yet made any commitments to them.

Identity Achievement

Marcia's identity state in which the individual has explored and committed to an aspect of their identity.

Personal Fable

An aspect of adolescent egocentrism when teens believe that they are unique and that nothing bad will happen to them, which can read to risky decisions.

Imaginary Audience

An aspect of adolescent egocentrism in which teens believe that other people are more intensely focused on their appearance, performance, or behaviors than they actually are.

Authoritative Parenting

Parenting style in which the caregiver is warm and loving but also establishes clear, reasonable limits, explains consequences, and has open lines of communication with their children.

Authoritarian Parenting

Parenting style in which the caregiver has low levels of warmth and responsiveness and is strict and rigid in their rules and stresses obedience.

Permissive Indulgent Parenting

Parenting style in which the caregiver places few limits or demands on the child, but there are high levels of warmth, communication, and love.

Permissive Neglectful Parenting

Parenting style in which the caregiver is uninvolved and shows little affection and places few demands on the child.

Ecological Systems Theory

Theory proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner that explores how various layers of a person's environment influence their development.

Microsystem

In ecological systems theory, this system includes the immediate environments where an individual interacts directly, such as family, school, and peer groups.

Mesosystem

In ecological systems theory, this system encompasses the interactions between different elements of the microsystem.

Exosystem

In ecological systems theory, this system consists of external environments that indirectly affect the individual, even though they may not have direct interactions with them.

Macrosystem

In ecological systems theory, this system includes overarching cultural and societal norms that affect individuals.

Chronosystem

In ecological systems theory, this system represents the dimension of time (including both historical events and individual life transitions) that impact an individual's development.

Adolescence

The developmental period between puberty and adulthood which is marked by physical and psychological changes that profoundly impact behavior and mental processes.

Growth Spurt

The rapid increase in height and weight, driven by hormonal changes, which occurs between the ages of 10-14 for girls and 12-16 for boys.

Menarche

The onset of menstruation in girls, signaling the attainment of reproductive maturity.

Spermarche

The first ejaculation in boys, signaling the attainment of reproductive maturity.

Secondary Sex Characteristic

A physical feature of an individual that is not necessary for reproduction, such as body hair.

Primary Sex Characteristic

The physical features of an individual that are necessary for sexual reproduction, such as ovaries or testes.

Biological Sex

The genetically created differences in primary sex characteristics determined by X and Y chromosomes.

Gender

The cultural, psychological, and behavioral characteristics associated with being male or female.

Gender Identity

The internal recognition that an individual believes they are male or female (or both or neither) and the assimilation of this into the self-concept.

Gender Role

Culturally and socially defined information about the social positions, traits, interests, behaviors, and thought processes expected of people with different genders.