Unit 1 AP Psychology (Myers-DeWall Modules 1-8)

What is the goal of Psychology a science? Why is it a science?

What is the goal of Psychology a science? Why is it a science?

Describe, Explain, Predict, & Control mental processes + behaviors. Also applicable to the Scientific Method and Attitude

What are the components of Scientific Attitude?

Curiosity, Skepticism, and Humility. Curiosity’s to ask questions, skepticism is the healthy balance between gullibility & cynicism, & humility is the ability to accept when your hypothesis is flawed (the rat’s always right)

What is Critical Thinking? How does it relate to Scientific Attitude, and how do they compare to “gut” feelers?

To discerns bias, distinguish between legit & anecdotal evidence, research evidence, look for more POVs, & examine assumptions to answer or refute hypotheses they or others may have

Who were Socrates and Plato? What did they do, and what did they believe?

Believed that knowledge was innate at birth, the mind and body were separate, and that the mind continues to function after death

Innate

Natural

Who was Aristotle? What did they do, and what did he believe?

A student under Plato who disagreed with him and Socrates. Believed in concrete evidence/data/numbers, and believed that knowledge is gained from experience VIA MEMORIES & thus isn’t innate

Who was Rene Descretes? What contribution did they have in Psychology, and what did they believe?

Agreed with Socrates and Plato (wanted to discover how the separate mind & body interacted). Discovered “hollow” nerves in animal brains—which they thought ran with “spirits”—that allowed reflexes

Who was Francis Bacon, and what was a contribution he had on Psychology?

Basis for empiricism, agreed with Aristotle that human & scientific knowledge is only obtained through observation, experience, & experimentation

Who was John Locke, and what was one contribution he had on Psychology?

Merged with Francis Bacon & created “empiricism”. Added the tabula rasa (“blank slate”) counterpart, and thought our minds were blank slates written on by experiences

What is Tabula Rasa?

Blank Slate

What is Empiricism?

Experimentation and Observation are key to scientific and human knowledge

Who was Thomas Hobbes, and what was the contribution he had on Psychology?

Believed the separate mind/soul/body idea was stupid, & thought consciousness came from the physical brain. Believed that mental processes were tangible. Somewhat early influence of objective Behaviorism

Who was the one who created the FIRST Psychological Lab? Who was the one to create the FIRST US Psychological Lab?

Wilhem Wundt created the first lab ever, and his US student G. Stanley Hall created the first American lab

What were the early schools of Psychology?

Structuralism (Edward Bradford Titchener) and Functionalism (William James)

What is Structuralism?

The study of the mental processes by self-reflection (introspection, adopted from Wundt) to isolate the mind’s elements. Sturdied them and their interactions with each other

Who is person whom most people accredit the introduction to introspection?

Wilhem Wundt; his “atoms of the mind” experiment asked his participants to SELF-REPORT when they initially hear sounds, & also when they felt awareness of said sounds

What is Functionalism?

Rather than identifying & studying isolated individual mind structures, questions how our mind’s functions help us adapt to and thrive in environments

Who was Edward Bradford Titchener? What was he significant for and what did he believe?

Father of Structuralism. Liked introspection, & wanted to identify and study structures of the MIND and their interactions with each other

Why did Titchener’s application of “introspection” fail?

Needed literate & well-spoken people to report sensations and feelings. Some were hard to explain, as the mind (no, not as in the physical brain) is not tangible, decreasing popularity of introspection + structuralism

Who was William James? What was he significant for and what did he believe?

Functionalism--studied functions of behavioral and mental processes & how they evolved to this point. Focused on things like stream of consciousness, memory, & and habits. Mentored Mary Whiton Calkins

Who was Dorothea Dix, and what was she significant for in Psychology?

She was an activist in the mid-late 19th century who wanted more humane treatment of the mentally ill, who at the time were called the “insane” and lived in poor mental asylums

Who was Mary Whiton Calkins, and what was she significant for in Psychology?

Was supposed to be the first to get a PhD in Psychology, but was refused. Instead made a career as a known memory researcher, & became the first female president of the American Psychiatric Association (APA). Mentored by William James

Who was Margaret Floy Washburn, and what was she significant for in Psychology?

First female to OFFICIALLY get a PhD in Psychology, and 2nd female president of APA. Was still rejected from things like Titchener’s (her mentor) Society for Experimental Psychologists. Studied animal consciousness through her book The Animal Mind

What is (basic structure) Gestalt Psychology?

How we construct things like lines, shapes, etc into something whose “whole is more than its parts”

What are the Gestalt Principles of Psychology?

Laws of Similarity, Closure, Proximity, Continuation, Figure/Ground, and Symmetry/Order

What were the big modern schools of Psychology by the late 20th century?

Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis (Freudian) Psychology

What is Behaviorism? Who were some leading figures and what did they believe?

Study learned behaviors w/o reference to mental processes, becoming definition of modern psychology for a bit. John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner disagreed with the mind workings of Structuralism & Functionalism as the mind was not tangible

What is Psychoanalysis? Who was a leading figure and what did they believe?

Human behavior was influenced through childhood traumas & the unconscious mind. Leading figure was Sigmund Freud

What other “small” school of Psychology accompany the bigger ones? Who were the figures of this school and what did they believe?

Humanistic Psychology, known with Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslov, disagreed with limitations of Behaviorism and Freudism. Emphasized on working towards innate potential for everyone’s personal growth

Who was Ivan Pavlov and what was their significance in Psychology?

Known for an experiment where they made dogs salivate after hearing a bell associated with food. Inspired future behaviorists

Who was Jean Piaget and what was their significance to Psychology?

Foresaw children’s cognition development at certain age groups. Labeled as sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages

How does Psychology focus on cognition?

Cognitive Psychology--the study of how the brain processes, stores, and retrieves information, and how thinking affects feelings/vice versa--and Cognitive Neuroscience--the study of brain activity behind mental processes

How does Psychology focus on biology and experience?

Nature-nurture debate, the introduction of natural selection, and acceptance that both nature and nurture influence a person. Biology and experience helps to see how we are commonly alike and different

Who was Charles Darwin, and what was his influence on Psychology?

A biologist that discovered differing gene pools that existed varying by environment, making up different appearances and behaviors of the same species in different places. Influenced people like WIlliam James for Functionalism, and somewhat dissipating nature-nurture debate.

What is Natural Selection?

The idea that a pool of genes are to survive and be passed down to the next generation to promote survival of the fittest

What is Evolutionary Psychology?

The study of behavior and mind throughout the evolution of a species (examining the changes), how our behaviors and mental processes of today exist, and how our innate, common biology make us humans alike

What is Behavior Genetics?

The study of how genes and environments influence our behavior, and how we differ through these

How does Psychology focus on culture and gender?

Same behaviors differ by region. Some left kiss, and others right. But kissing--biologically--has the same connotation for affection. Different cultures have distinct expectations, influencing people’s behaviors. Gender too; men & women may talk about different topics, or be more/less emotional than the other. However, men & women are still biologically human and develop at similar rates. No matter how different, there are always more similarities

What’s Culture?

Shared beliefs, values, traditions, and etiquette in a group that are passed down to the next generation

How does Psychology focus on human flourishing?

Positive Psychology believes that both good and bad events should be considered. People like Martin Seligman encourage people to engage in goals and activities that will enable acceptance and lead to thriving

What is the Biopsychosocial Approach to Psychology?

Biological (genes, mutations, hormones), psychological (learned behaviors, attitudes, gene-environment influences), and social-cultural (expectations, peers) influences of behaviors

What is the Behavioristic Perspective?

Questions on whether or how observed behaviors are either conditioned or learned. Questions may include “was this person’s fear of spiders learned and/or a response to certain stimuli?”

What is the Cognitive Perspective?

How one perceives, retrieves, & processes info, and how certain thoughts affect behavior/feelings and vice versa. Questions may include “How does one’s anger affect their thinking?” and vice versa

What is the Biological Perspective?

Relationship of human behavior and mental processes with biological factors. Questions include “Was this level of aggression a result of a genetic mutation?”

What is the Humanistic Perspective?

How good behaviors & a nice lifestyle will lead to happiness and increased potential for personal growth. Questions may include “How can this person’s tendency to exercise lead to overall happiness?”

What is the Evolutionary Perspective?

Sees how natural selection or mating patterns enabled genes to survive among ancestors. Questions include “Did female ancestors mate with men who like children, or those who dislike children?”

What is the Psychodynamic Perspective?

Questions how personality stems from traumas and subconscious barriers against desire. Questions may include “did Tim McVeigh’s violent tendencies stem from unfulfilled needs?”

What is the Social-Cultural Perspective?

How behaviors are influenced by other cultures, constructs, people, and societies. Questions may include “Why do mental aptitudes differ throughout different countries?”

What do each of the fingers represent of the 7 perspectives?

Thumb is psychodynamic pointing back in time, index is placed on your head for cognitive, middle finger is a learned behavior, ring finger is humanistic since the world can’t function to its absolute potential without humans, pinky is the most important finger biologically, palm is widely socio-cultural, and wrist is evolutionary because it’s the roots of our hand

What is the Testing Effect?

Continuous repetition in self-quizzing content one already read is better for retention than merely reading it over

What is the SQ3R method?

Survey (Skim), Question material, Read it, Retrieve main ideas, and Review the content whether through self-testing or practice. Forces the students to actively learn/read with a purpose

What are other ways you can be successful in studying and learning?

Distributing study time (ie: spaced repetition), incorporating exercise, getting good sleep, having a growth mindset, and actively engaging with work/lectures

What is Basic Research?

Research expanding on the base network of knowledge Psychology has thus far produced

What is Applied Research?

Research and work applying concepts of Psychology to solve practical issues

What are examples of Basic Research sub-fields?

Cognitive Psychology, Personality Psychology, Social Psychology, Educational Psychology, Psychometric & Quantitative Psychology, Experimental Psychology, Biological Psychology, and Developmental Psychology

What are Cognitive Psychologists? What do they do and where can they work?

Studies the brain’s ways of processing, perceiving, and retrieving information. Studies the relation both this and behavior have on each other, and tries to see how to use this to shift thoughts and create better behaviors. May study forgetfulness, memory, and problem solving. May work in schools, businesses, or as human factors specialists

What are Personality Psychologists? What do they do?

They note patterns, whether thinking or behavioral, in one’s personalities and studies how it affects them and other people

What are Educational Psychologists? What do they do and where can they work?

Studies how psychology affects and enhances learning/teaching. May observe teachers’ methods of engagement, optimize classroom setups, & create tests measuring achievement / skills. May work in universities or businesses to enhance employer-to-worker training

What are Experimental Psychologists? What do they do and where can they work?

People who conduct research based on credentials and interests (ie: cognitive research). May be interested in experimenting mental processes like memory, motivation, and language. May work in government agencies, as professors, or as overseers on research

What are Developmental Psychologists? What do they do and where can they work?

Studies human behavior and mental processes from womb to tomb. May apply research with school psychologists, help create policies in child-care, or aid in adoption processes. May work with a certain age group like senior centers, youth groups, or day-cares

What are Psychometric & Quantitative Psychologists? What do they do and where can they work?

Creates and measures abilities of human behavior and mental processes through diagnostic tests. They can also interpret numerical results for tests. May work in test-creating companies, government agencies, or research companies

What are Social Psychologists? What do they do and where can they work?

Examines how people’s behaviors and attitudes affect others and are affected by others. May likely look into interactions like discrimination, relationships, or leadership. May work in social networking sites, businesses, research, and federal agencies

What are examples of Applied Research sub-fields?

Industrial Organization Psychology (I/O), Human Factors Specialists, Forensic Psychology, School Psychology, Environmental Psychology, Sports Psychology, Rehabilitation Psychology, Neuropsychology, Health Psychology, Positive Psychology

What are Forensic Psychologists? What do they do and where can they work?

Applies psychology & mental health with the law. May do things like question jurisdiction, assist criminal investigation, or testify on behalf of a criminal’s state of mind that’s at risk. May work in government agencies, courts, or law schools

What are Environmental Psychologists? What do they do and where can they work?

Studies how human behaviors affect natural environments around them, and vice versa. Likely advocates for issues like conservation. May explore how urbanism/suburbanism affect people’s behavior. May work for non-profits, academic settings, or gov. agencies

What are Industrial Organizational (I/O) Psychologists? What do they do and where can they work? (Note: a little different than Human Factors Specialists)

Observes interactions in organizations between worker & employer, or worker with a team. May work on employee training, selection of personnel, & improving worker morale. May work in businesses, management consultation companies, or freelance

What are Human Factors Specialists, and what do they do?

Researches behavioral and mental interactions between humans and machines, AND JOB ENVIRONMENT. May design interventions to make environments safer, less miserable, and easier. Different from I/O Psychologists who improve worker/employer/team dynamics

What are Neuropsychologists? What do they do and where can they work?

Studies neurological processes associated with behavior. May diagnose and treat CNS illnesses like Alzheimer’s, learning disabilities, & others like ADHD. Regular neuropsychologists may work in neurology, neurosurgery, & academic settings. Clinicals may work in psych. units or hospitals

What are Rehabilitation Psychologists? What do they do and where can they work?

Assists those that lost basic function after traumatic accidents. May work in hospitals, rehab. centers, med. schools, or directly with disabled people

What are Health Psychologists? What do they do and where can they work?

Observes relationship of physical with mental health, & designs healthy physical habits to promote that. May include STI/STD prevention, smoking programs, & alleviating chronic illness. May work in public health service, hospitals, medical schools, or rehabs

What are School Psychologists? What do they do and where can they work?

Collaborates with students to identify social, emotional, and behavioral issues interfering with education. May also collaborate with teachers, administration, and/or parents to enhance learning, whether by accommodations, etc. May work at schools, correctional settings, or pediatric hospitals

What are Sports Psychologists? What do they do and where can they work?

Works with athletes or sports teams through coaching, or optimize performance with substance abuse athletes (cognitive sports psychologists). Concerned with how mental processes and behaviors affect & are affected by sports. May work with sports teams and organizations, or in clinical private practice

What are examples of “Helping” Professions in Psychology?

Clinical Psychology, Counseling Psychology, Community Psychology, and Psychiatry

What are Community Psychologists? What do they do and where can they work?

Believe behaviors are affected by and affect political, physical, social, and economic environments people interact with. Work with communities instead of individuals; specialize in crisis assistance and prevention. Example is anti-bullying interventions. May work as professors, health researchers, or at gov. agencies

What is the difference between Clinical and Counseling Psychology?

Clinicals assess, diagnose and treat those with moderate to severe disorder; Counseling can do the same, yet can help with life transitions, coping skills, & building upon patients’ skill-sets to navigate change

What is the difference between Clinical/Counseling Psychology and Psychiatry?

Psychiatrists are physicians who can prescribe medicine, and are more equipped to relieve the physical effects from mental health crises. Rarely give therapy like clinical/counseling psychologists

What is Hindsight Bias?

“I Knew It All Along” effect. When the aftermath of something has already occurred, one will believe that they have already foreseen it

What is Overconfidence?

When one exaggerates the accuracy of judgements, abilities, and decisions

What is the concept of people perceiving patterns within truly random events?

When one believes there is a pattern in a given set of data, yet we must always assume the data given is random unless one can prove that it’s not (done via inferential statistics)

How does Hindsight Bias, Overconfidence, and Perceiving patterns in random events prove that scientifically supported answers are more valid than common sense based answers?

They overexaggerate the value and usage of quick, common sense, which is as incorrect as overusing intuition

What is the Scientific Method?

Self-evaluation dealing with accepting or revising one’s thinking through analysis and observation (similar to the Scientific Attitude)

What are theories, and how do they advance psychological science?

Organizes ideas from a series of observations, and hypotheses can be made from them. They advance science by introducing new ideas for others to explore and test

What is a hypothesis?

A testable, educated prediction stemming from a theory

What is replication, and how come is it important?

Recreating an experiment with operational definitions with different subjects, circumstances, and/or resources. If successfully replicated with consistent results, then parent study’s findings and hypothesis become more reliable

What are operational definitions, and why are they important when it comes to testing?

Clarifies exact procedures for things of a parent study desired to be replicated. Eliminates researcher bias in searching for what they want to happen and confusion, since terminology differ between researchers

What are the types of research designs that one may use?

Descriptive, Correlational, and Experimental

What is the purpose of the descriptive research design? How is it done, what variables do they manipulate, and what are its downsides?

Observations of naturally occurring behaviors through case studies, naturalistic observations, & surveys. They don’t manipulate variables, but results can be unreliable, be biased by misleading cases, and cannot explain behaviors

What is the purpose of the correlational research design? How is it done, what variables do they manipulate, and what are its downsides?

Finds the relation between 2 or more variables done by collecting data. Nothing’s manipulated, so they cannot fully explain causes and effects of variables. Rather, confounding variables may be able to explain either

What is the purpose of the experimental research design? How is it done, what variables do they manipulate, and what are its downsides?

Isolates variables to test predicted effects on another variable. A random sample is randomly assigned into control / experimental groups, and independent variables are manipulated. These studies are hard, there may be ethics issues, and unreliable results are possible

What are case studies, and how are they used to describe behavior? What are some of its disadvantages?

Long term IN DEPTH observation and/or documentation of behavior for a group / person. Downsides may include anecdotal, extreme cases causing bias and misleads

What are naturalistic observations, and how are they used to describe behaviors? What are some of its disadvantages?

Observations take place in natural settings, with minimal researcher interference. Example is observing students’ seating preferences in a school cafeteria. Usually budget friendly. Downsides include confounding variables and misleading, extreme cases

What are surveys, and how are they used to describe behaviors? What are some of its disadvantages?

Interrogation of a group or individual. They self-report naturally occurring behaviors. Disadvantages include difficulty of self-reporting, lying, inadequate phrasing of questions, and whether the sample is random

What is random sampling, and how come is it important when it comes to discerning bias in any research studies?

When a wider population has an equal chance of participating. Unrepresentative samples include people’s extreme cases & fruitful stories, which people tend to eat up more than numbers

What is correlation, and what does it mean when things positively/negatively correlate.

How “f-ing” close two variables are, whether predicting each other or varying close. When two things positively correlate, slopes are positive, and slopes are negative if correlation is negative

What are variable?

Factors that can be measured or used to potentially predict/effect other factors

What are scatterplots? How are they represented?

Represented using dots to be each data point in the study for the variables considered

What is the correlation coefficient, what represents perfect correlation, and how does it scale?

The value measuring the relation of variables, mainly on scatter plots. Perfect negative and positive correlations are ±1.00, whereas any value below +1.00 or above -1.00 determines how closely variables correlate

What is it that scatter plots and correlational studies cannot do that more experimental research designs can?

They cannot explain the causes and effects of correlated variables, just like how descriptive studies can only identify naturally occurring behaviors rather than explain them

How come are correlations unable to explain cause and effects, yet can enable predictions?

These studies do not explain cause and effect in relationships because they do not isolate variables to observe effects. However, they can enable multiple predictions: that variable A may tend to effect variable B, that variable B may be an effect of variable A, or that a 3rd party unconsidered variable may effect variable A, B, or both

What are illusory correlations? How can this affect correlative studies like how bias affects people’s views on things like case studies?

Like fruitful anecdotes that mislead people, these can bias someone by making them think a correlation is stronger than it truly is or exists when none exists at all between variables