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pastoral; settled
The Mongol moment in history represents an enormous cultural encounter between ___ & ___ civilizations in Eurasia
new states; old traditions
Mongol conquer & rule varied everywhere, and their decline & collapse in the 1300s-1400s allowed for ___ ___ to revive ___ ___
china; north; violent; accomodating
___ was the most difficult & extended conquest; Invasion started in the ___, where there was massive destruction; in the south (Song dynasty), Mongols were far less ___; more concerned with ___ the local population
unified; mandate of heaven
Outcome of Mongol conquest was a ___ China, persuading some elites that Mongols had the ___ __ ___
wealth; culture & governance
Mongols extracted as much ___ as possible from China, meaning they accommodated aspects of Chinese ___ & ___Ā
Khubilai Khan
China's Mongol ruler 1271-1294, initiated Yuan dynasty
benevolent Confucian-inspired
Khubilai Khan's rule evoked values of a ___ ___-___ Chinese emperor: Capital moved to Beijing; Chinese administration, tax, & postal techniques used; supported Confucian rituals, Daoist temples, esp. Tibetan Buddhism
slave
Mongol rule in China was still harsh, exploitative, foreign, & resented; Marco Polo reported some Mongol officials treating the Chinese like ___
integrate; culture; tents; exam system; muslims
The Mongols didn't become Chinese or ___ every part of their ___; Many elites preferred living in traditional ___, and the ___ ___ was largely ignored; they relied on foreigners (esp ___) as officials and kept the top decision-making roles for themselves
craftsmen/artisans; confucian bureaucrats
Few mongols learned Chinese, and the law discriminated against Chinese; Mongols honored & supported ___/___, unlike the ___ ___
forbidden; bind feet; mixed freely; female advisors
intermarriage was allowed; Chinese learning the Mongol script was ___; Mongol women didnāt ___ ___ & ___ ___ w/ men; Khubilai Khan kept Mongol tradition of reliance on ___ ___ (especially favorite wife, Chabi)
century; factions; prices; epidemics; peasant rebellions; Ming
Mongol rule in China barely lasted more than a ___; mid 1300s: ___ among Mongols, rising ___, ___, ___ ___ forced them out; rebel forces triumphed by 1368 and replaced Yuan by the ___ dynasty (1368-1644)
foreign rule; confucian; gender roles
The Ming dynasty attempted to eliminate all signs of ___ ___; discouraged Mongol names/dress; promoted ___ learning & orthodox ___ ___ from earlier dynasty models
encyclopedia; expeditions; female behavior & expectations
Emperor Yongle sponsored an 11,000 volume ___, ordered the construction of the Forbidden City & Temple of Heaven, and launched Indian Ocean ___; 2 empresses wrote instructions for ___ ___ & ___
exam system; centralized
Politically, the Ming dynasty reestablished the ___ ___ & created a highly ___ government; power concentrated in hands of the emperor with a cadre of eunuchs loyal to the him exercised authority, to dismay of official bureacrats
Ming restoration after the Mongols
Restored millions of acres, rebuilt canals/reservoirs/irrigation works, planted est. 1B trees; economy rebounded as a result, trade flourished, pop. grew, and China was the best governed & most prosperous civ at the time
islamic civilization heartland; cultural distinctiveness; language
Persia was an important part of ___ ___ ___; incorporated into the Islamic world by 900 CE w/o losing ___ ___ or ___, but still deeply influenced by Arabic Islam
administrative; court; arts; Mongol conquerors
Persiaās impact on Arabic Islamic world was equally profound: ___ techniques, ___ practices, ___ all shaped culture in Islamic heartland as well as transformed ___ ___
Chinggis Khan; Hulegu; il-khan
Mongol conquer in Persia was more abrupt than in China; first invasion (1219-1221) by ___ ___, then 30-year 2nd assault by grandson ___, who became first __-___ (Subordinate Khan) of Persia
infidels; violence
Persia was not prepared for Mongol attack: they were shocked by Mongol victory, who they saw as ___; Mongols brought a degree of ___ Persia had never seen
taxes; peasants; pasture; desert; irrigation system
Mongols damaged Persian/Iraqi agriculture: heavy ___ pushed ___ off land; Mongol goat & sheep herds turned farmland into ___ and sometimes ___; result: underground ___ ___ neglected & agricultural land reduced to waste
wine; silk
Some sectors of Persian economy gained: increased ___ production, ___ industry benefitted from contact w/ China
bureaucracy; muslim conversion; persian; farmers; married locals
Persia transformed Mongols much more than China did; extensive use of Persian ___, where Persians still had major roles; effort to repair irrigation works & rebuild cities and ___ ___ under Gharan's (1295-1304) reign; court members & elites learned some ___, and some Mongols became ___ and ___ ___
assimilated; successfully resisting the cultural influence of barbarians
When Mongol dynasty of Hulegu's descendants collapsed (1330s), Mongols ___ into Persian society instead of being driven out; Persians saw this asā¦
political disorder; safivid empire; turkic
In Persia, collapse of il-khanate led to period of ___ ___; only reunited w/ emergence of ___ ___ in the late 1400- early 1500s; ___ leadership
shia; sharp divide; sunni; ottomans
Significance of Safivid Empire: forced ___ version of Islam, which gained popular support & shaped Persian/Iranian culture; caused ___ ___ into the heart of Islam - almost all of Persiaās neighbors practiced ___ (esp. ___, who they conflicted with for a century)
political unity; independent princes
When the Mongols invaded Russia, its ___ ___ was already gone; governed by ___ ___
catapults; battering rams; skilled workers; deported; enslaved
Mongols invaded Russia with stunning ferocity, now armed w/ ___ & ___ ___ from China & Persia; ___ ___ of survivors/surrendered cities ___ throughout the empire or ___
Kipchak Khanate; Golden Horde; occupy
To the Mongols, Russia was the ___ ___ (after Kipchak peoples of Caspian/Black Seas); to the Russians, it was the Khanate of the ___ ___; Mongols didnāt ___ Russia like China or Persia
economy; trade route; pastoral
Russia had little to offer: unsophisticated ___, no major ___ ___ connections; Mongols could maintain ___ lifestyles in the steppes of Black/Caspian seas while staying in Russia's reach
tribute; taxes; peasants; border raids; slavery
Mongols exploited Russia; Russian princes appointed by khan were required to send ___ to Mongol capital Sarai; ___ created heavy burden, esp. on ___; ___ ___ sent tens of thousands of Russians into ___
religious tolerance; taxes
Russian Orthodox Church flourished under Mongols; policy of ___ ___; exemption from ___
nobles; destroyed; undamaged; moscow; tribute
Russian ___ who joined Mongol raids received share of loot; Cities that resisted were ___ while cities that surrendered were left mostly ___ (ex. ___, primary collector of ___ for the Mongols)
Russian
Mongols were far less influenced by/assimilated in ___ cultures than in China & Persia
china; persia; tribute & taxes; weapons; diplomatic rituals; court practices, tax system, & military draft
Mongol impact on Russia was still greater than on ___ or ___; Russian princes were left alone if they paid ___ & ___; adopted Mongolā¦
Moscowās; russian orthodox
Mongol policies facilitated ___ rise in the new Russian state, which used the Mongol courier system, and strengthened ___ ___
division; plague; russian state; russian empire
___ among Mongols, ___, & growing ___ ___ allowed Russians to break Mongol hold by end of 1400s; series of aggressive leaders, conquered neighboring Russian-speaking states; foundation for ___ ___ in 1500s -1600s
third Rome; constantinople; Muslim Turks
Some Russian church leaders saw Russia as a ___ ___; the first abandoned Orthodox for Roman Catholicism; the second (___) fell to ___ ___, signifying passing of Orthodox leadership to Russia
Eastern orthodox; byzantine
Russian undertaking of ___ ___ reflected its "Russification" & growing role as an element of Russian national identity, as well as a reminder of ___ legacy
savage violence; Pax Mongolica; Silk Road
Mongols challenged notions of "barbarian" & "civilized ": capable of ___ ___, but rule also creates an era of peaceful cross-cultureal acceptance (___ ___) by uniting the ___ ___ under one government
egalitarian; material; environment; fighters; tribal/clan; competition; familial; bravery; diplomacy
Mongols follow pattern of other nomads: ___; little ___ culture; adaptation to ___; rugged, hardened lifestyle & capable ___; ___/___ organization; heightened ___ & ___ relationships; leadership by ___ & ___
Chinggis Khan
born Temujin; violently avenged family; military strength led to alliances & ascent to supreme ruler of Central Asia
Chinese; buddhism; christianity; islam; Mongol empire
___ culture & ___ integrated East Asia, ___ did Europe, & ___ connected most lands in between; ___ ___ brought all these regions into one interacting network
produce/trade; tax
Mongols didnāt ___/___ much but promoted commerce, mostly to ___ it & extract wealth from the other civilizations
The mongols fostered a relatively secure environment for merchants journeying across Central Asia; brough ends of Eurasia closer & new phase in history of long-distrance travel
rich lands; commercail opportunities; european conscience
European merchants returned home w/ stories & information about ___ ___ & prosperous ___ ___ that had long existed but only just come into ___ ___
Khan Ogedeiās death & inadequate pastures for herds
Mongols didnāt conquer EU bc ofā¦
learn about mongol intentions, secure aid in christian crusade against islam, convert mongols to Christianity
Eu spared, but still feared Mongolsā returnāpope & eu rulers sent delegations to mongol capital, hoping in vain toā¦
information of eastern lands
most important outcome of eu/mongol diplomacy was ___ __ ___ ___ brought back from missions
europe; islamic conversion
il-khanate of persia sought alliance w/ slamic conversions to take jerusalem & crush islamic fores, but failed b/c of persian Mongols' ___ ___
embassadores; skilled workers; intel; traded
close relationship between persia & china: exchanged ___ & ___ ___, shared ___, ___
cultures; peoples; relocated; religious tolerance; merchants
with economica & political relations came an exchange of ___ & ___; mongols forcibly ___ skilled workers and educated people; ___ ___ & support of ___ attracted missionaries & traders
karakorum; religious ideas
the capital ___ was a cosmopolitan city w/ places of worship for buddhists, daoists, muslims, and Christians; chinggis khan & other rulers married christian women; relatively open outlook facilitated exchange & blending of ___ ___
technology; ideas; reception
mongol authorities encouraged exchange of ___ & ___; chinese tech flowed west; cultures still shaped ___ of foreign ideas/practices
europeans; tech; crops; ideas; mongol conquest
___ gained the most as they were the least technologically developed; benefit of new ___, ___ & ___ from wider world w/o suffering from brutal ___ ___ was arguably the basis for the regionās rise to global prominence
cavalry; horseback; ethnically mixed
the mongols were an effective military because of mobility & strategy; mostly ___ on ___ w/ bows & arrows; ability to retreat/fake retreat; scouts & spies; highly structured, ___ ___ brigades
administrators; muslim & chinese bureaucrats
Mongols were astute & tolerant leaders but not day-to-day ___; stimulated trade, cultural exchange, artistic creativity; administration carried out by ___ & ___ ___
division; ogedei
Chinggis Khanās death led to ___ of empire between sons; succeeded by ___
russia; persia; central asia; china
empire was split into 4 khanates after chinggis khanās death: golden horde (___), ilkhan (___), djagatai (___ ___), yuan/empire of khubilai khan (___)
mongol impacts in china
ended CSE; made chinese more inward-looking
mongol impacts in middle east
over-taxation devasted farms; mongols converted; power vacuum
mongol impacts in russia
tribute; russian leadership in moscow; peasants suffer
plague
Mongol networks not only brought benefits in communication/trade but also the ___
china; trade routes
the black death likely originated in ___; spread across Mongol Empireās ___ ___ in early 1300s to ME & WEU
maritime expeditions
the black death reached east africa by the 1400s, likely through chinese ___ ___
populated; steppes
people who caught the plague died in days; high death toll in both ___ civilizations and the ___
india; sub-saharan africa
the plague came in an intense first wave and was followed by periodic waves over the next few centuries; ___ and ___-___ ___ were much less affected
faith
___ provided a means to understand/cope with the plague; people sought mercy or atonement for their sins; places where faiths coexisted saw several faiths acting together
passions/appetites
some turned away from faith during the plague, living to satisfy their ___/___
better wages & conditions; resisting demands
labor shortages provoked conflict between scarce workers demanding ___ ___ & ___ and employers ___ ___
peasant revolts; serfdom; innovation; women
the labor shortages in europe due to the plague led to ___ ___ & undermined ___; may have also fostered greater interest in tech. ___ & created more opportunities for ___ at the time
mongol network; declined
the plague was born of the ___ ___ and helped destroy it in the 1300s-1400s: population & trade ___, ME in disarray by 1350s
central asian
the mongols lost control of china, persia, and russia within a century; the ___ ___ trade route was largely closed
land routes; muslim middlemen
disruption of mongol ___ ___ & desire to avoid ___ ___ led the europeans to reach asia by sea; naval tech gave military advantages, and they took on the mongol role in some ways by the 1500s
outskirts; economically developed; forcibly plundered; disease
EU & Mongol similarities: peoples on ___ of est. civ; less ___ ___ than China, India, ME but still ___ ___ their wealth; brought devastating ___/pop decline
culture; people
europe brought much more ___ & their own ___ to areas they conquered than the mongols did; christianity, language western science & tech, settler societies
scholar-gentry; commercial & urban; bolstered
yuan āforeign-nessā & policies alienated the ___-___, yet ___ & ___ boom continued; position of peasants ___
overspending; overexpansion; separation
the yuanās decline resulted from the usual circumstances: ___ on luxury goods, ___ south; ___ of rulers & rules; greed/taxes
ilkhan; abbasid & baghdad
___ khanate (led by hulegu) set sights on middle eastern wealth; destroyed the ___ & ___ (1258), but the mamluks of egypt & infighting defeated the mongols by 1260
ottomans; safavids
the mongols in the middle east were succeeded by the ___ and the ___
pax mongolica
mongol peace & increased trade
timur-i lang
a complex figure, ruthless conqueror, last great nomadic challenge; product of mongolian mindset: death was always an option
catholic church most powerful yet questioned; labor classes rise from labor shortage
impacts of the bubonic plague in europe
jewish
___ people were blamed for the plague; many were merchants and they lived in separate communities so they werenāt impacted as much