Chapter 12 The Mongols

pastoral; settled

pastoral; settled

The Mongol moment in history represents an enormous cultural encounter between ___ & ___ civilizations in Eurasia

new states; old traditions

Mongol conquer & rule varied everywhere, and their decline & collapse in the 1300s-1400s allowed for ___ ___ to revive ___ ___

china; north; violent; accomodating

___ was the most difficult & extended conquest; Invasion started in the ___, where there was massive destruction; in the south (Song dynasty), Mongols were far less ___; more concerned with ___ the local population

unified; mandate of heaven

Outcome of Mongol conquest was a ___ China, persuading some elites that Mongols had the ___ __ ___

wealth; culture & governance

Mongols extracted as much ___ as possible from China, meaning they accommodated aspects of Chinese ___ & ___ 

Khubilai Khan

China's Mongol ruler 1271-1294, initiated Yuan dynasty

benevolent Confucian-inspired

Khubilai Khan's rule evoked values of a ___ ___-___ Chinese emperor: Capital moved to Beijing; Chinese administration, tax, & postal techniques used; supported Confucian rituals, Daoist temples, esp. Tibetan Buddhism

slave

Mongol rule in China was still harsh, exploitative, foreign, & resented; Marco Polo reported some Mongol officials treating the Chinese like ___

integrate; culture; tents; exam system; muslims

The Mongols didn't become Chinese or ___ every part of their ___; Many elites preferred living in traditional ___, and the ___ ___ was largely ignored; they relied on foreigners (esp ___) as officials and kept the top decision-making roles for themselves

craftsmen/artisans; confucian bureaucrats

Few mongols learned Chinese, and the law discriminated against Chinese; Mongols honored & supported ___/___, unlike the ___ ___

forbidden; bind feet; mixed freely; female advisors

intermarriage was allowed; Chinese learning the Mongol script was ___; Mongol women didn’t ___ ___ & ___ ___ w/ men; Khubilai Khan kept Mongol tradition of reliance on ___ ___ (especially favorite wife, Chabi)

century; factions; prices; epidemics; peasant rebellions; Ming

Mongol rule in China barely lasted more than a ___; mid 1300s: ___ among Mongols, rising ___, ___, ___ ___ forced them out; rebel forces triumphed by 1368 and replaced Yuan by the ___ dynasty (1368-1644)

foreign rule; confucian; gender roles

The Ming dynasty attempted to eliminate all signs of ___ ___; discouraged Mongol names/dress; promoted ___ learning & orthodox ___ ___ from earlier dynasty models

encyclopedia; expeditions; female behavior & expectations

Emperor Yongle sponsored an 11,000 volume ___, ordered the construction of the Forbidden City & Temple of Heaven, and launched Indian Ocean ___; 2 empresses wrote instructions for ___ ___ & ___

exam system; centralized

Politically, the Ming dynasty reestablished the ___ ___ & created a highly ___ government; power concentrated in hands of the emperor with a cadre of eunuchs loyal to the him exercised authority, to dismay of official bureacrats

Ming restoration after the Mongols

Restored millions of acres, rebuilt canals/reservoirs/irrigation works, planted est. 1B trees; economy rebounded as a result, trade flourished, pop. grew, and China was the best governed & most prosperous civ at the time

islamic civilization heartland; cultural distinctiveness; language

Persia was an important part of ___ ___ ___; incorporated into the Islamic world by 900 CE w/o losing ___ ___ or ___, but still deeply influenced by Arabic Islam

administrative; court; arts; Mongol conquerors

Persia’s impact on Arabic Islamic world was equally profound: ___ techniques, ___ practices, ___ all shaped culture in Islamic heartland as well as transformed ___ ___

Chinggis Khan; Hulegu; il-khan

Mongol conquer in Persia was more abrupt than in China; first invasion (1219-1221) by ___ ___, then 30-year 2nd assault by grandson ___, who became first __-___ (Subordinate Khan) of Persia

infidels; violence

Persia was not prepared for Mongol attack: they were shocked by Mongol victory, who they saw as ___; Mongols brought a degree of ___ Persia had never seen

taxes; peasants; pasture; desert; irrigation system

Mongols damaged Persian/Iraqi agriculture: heavy ___ pushed ___ off land; Mongol goat & sheep herds turned farmland into ___ and sometimes ___; result: underground ___ ___ neglected & agricultural land reduced to waste

wine; silk

Some sectors of Persian economy gained: increased ___ production, ___ industry benefitted from contact w/ China

bureaucracy; muslim conversion; persian; farmers; married locals

Persia transformed Mongols much more than China did; extensive use of Persian ___, where Persians still had major roles; effort to repair irrigation works & rebuild cities and ___ ___ under Gharan's (1295-1304) reign; court members & elites learned some ___, and some Mongols became ___ and ___ ___

assimilated; successfully resisting the cultural influence of barbarians

When Mongol dynasty of Hulegu's descendants collapsed (1330s), Mongols ___ into Persian society instead of being driven out; Persians saw this as…

political disorder; safivid empire; turkic

In Persia, collapse of il-khanate led to period of ___ ___; only reunited w/ emergence of ___ ___ in the late 1400- early 1500s; ___ leadership

shia; sharp divide; sunni; ottomans

Significance of Safivid Empire: forced ___ version of Islam, which gained popular support & shaped Persian/Iranian culture; caused ___ ___ into the heart of Islam - almost all of Persia’s neighbors practiced ___ (esp. ___, who they conflicted with for a century)

political unity; independent princes

When the Mongols invaded Russia, its ___ ___ was already gone; governed by ___ ___

catapults; battering rams; skilled workers; deported; enslaved

Mongols invaded Russia with stunning ferocity, now armed w/ ___ & ___ ___ from China & Persia; ___ ___ of survivors/surrendered cities ___ throughout the empire or ___

Kipchak Khanate; Golden Horde; occupy

To the Mongols, Russia was the ___ ___ (after Kipchak peoples of Caspian/Black Seas); to the Russians, it was the Khanate of the ___ ___; Mongols didn’t ___ Russia like China or Persia

economy; trade route; pastoral

Russia had little to offer: unsophisticated ___, no major ___ ___ connections; Mongols could maintain ___ lifestyles in the steppes of Black/Caspian seas while staying in Russia's reach

tribute; taxes; peasants; border raids; slavery

Mongols exploited Russia; Russian princes appointed by khan were required to send ___ to Mongol capital Sarai; ___ created heavy burden, esp. on ___; ___ ___ sent tens of thousands of Russians into ___

religious tolerance; taxes

Russian Orthodox Church flourished under Mongols; policy of ___ ___; exemption from ___

nobles; destroyed; undamaged; moscow; tribute

Russian ___ who joined Mongol raids received share of loot; Cities that resisted were ___ while cities that surrendered were left mostly ___ (ex. ___, primary collector of ___ for the Mongols)

Russian

Mongols were far less influenced by/assimilated in ___ cultures than in China & Persia

china; persia; tribute & taxes; weapons; diplomatic rituals; court practices, tax system, & military draft

Mongol impact on Russia was still greater than on ___ or ___; Russian princes were left alone if they paid ___ & ___; adopted Mongol…

Moscow’s; russian orthodox

Mongol policies facilitated ___ rise in the new Russian state, which used the Mongol courier system, and strengthened ___ ___

division; plague; russian state; russian empire

___ among Mongols, ___, & growing ___ ___ allowed Russians to break Mongol hold by end of 1400s; series of aggressive leaders, conquered neighboring Russian-speaking states; foundation for ___ ___ in 1500s -1600s

third Rome; constantinople; Muslim Turks

Some Russian church leaders saw Russia as a ___ ___; the first abandoned Orthodox for Roman Catholicism; the second (___) fell to ___ ___, signifying passing of Orthodox leadership to Russia

Eastern orthodox; byzantine

Russian undertaking of ___ ___ reflected its "Russification" & growing role as an element of Russian national identity, as well as a reminder of ___ legacy

savage violence; Pax Mongolica; Silk Road

Mongols challenged notions of "barbarian" & "civilized ": capable of ___ ___, but rule also creates an era of peaceful cross-cultureal acceptance (___ ___) by uniting the ___ ___ under one government

egalitarian; material; environment; fighters; tribal/clan; competition; familial; bravery; diplomacy

Mongols follow pattern of other nomads: ___; little ___ culture; adaptation to ___; rugged, hardened lifestyle & capable ___; ___/___ organization; heightened ___ & ___ relationships; leadership by ___ & ___

Chinggis Khan

born Temujin; violently avenged family; military strength led to alliances & ascent to supreme ruler of Central Asia

Chinese; buddhism; christianity; islam; Mongol empire

___ culture & ___ integrated East Asia, ___ did Europe, & ___ connected most lands in between; ___ ___ brought all these regions into one interacting network

produce/trade; tax

Mongols didn’t ___/___ much but promoted commerce, mostly to ___ it & extract wealth from the other civilizations

The mongols fostered a relatively secure environment for merchants journeying across Central Asia; brough ends of Eurasia closer & new phase in history of long-distrance travel

rich lands; commercail opportunities; european conscience

European merchants returned home w/ stories & information about ___ ___ & prosperous ___ ___ that had long existed but only just come into ___ ___

Khan Ogedei’s death & inadequate pastures for herds

Mongols didn’t conquer EU bc of…

learn about mongol intentions, secure aid in christian crusade against islam, convert mongols to Christianity

Eu spared, but still feared Mongols’ return—pope & eu rulers sent delegations to mongol capital, hoping in vain to…

information of eastern lands

most important outcome of eu/mongol diplomacy was ___ __ ___ ___ brought back from missions

europe; islamic conversion

il-khanate of persia sought alliance w/ slamic conversions to take jerusalem & crush islamic fores, but failed b/c of persian Mongols' ___ ___

embassadores; skilled workers; intel; traded

close relationship between persia & china: exchanged ___ & ___ ___, shared ___, ___

cultures; peoples; relocated; religious tolerance; merchants

with economica & political relations came an exchange of ___ & ___; mongols forcibly ___ skilled workers and educated people; ___ ___ & support of ___ attracted missionaries & traders

karakorum; religious ideas

the capital ___ was a cosmopolitan city w/ places of worship for buddhists, daoists, muslims, and Christians; chinggis khan & other rulers married christian women; relatively open outlook facilitated exchange & blending of ___ ___

technology; ideas; reception

mongol authorities encouraged exchange of ___ & ___; chinese tech flowed west; cultures still shaped ___ of foreign ideas/practices

europeans; tech; crops; ideas; mongol conquest

___ gained the most as they were the least technologically developed; benefit of new ___, ___ & ___ from wider world w/o suffering from brutal ___ ___ was arguably the basis for the region’s rise to global prominence

cavalry; horseback; ethnically mixed

the mongols were an effective military because of mobility & strategy; mostly ___ on ___ w/ bows & arrows; ability to retreat/fake retreat; scouts & spies; highly structured, ___ ___ brigades

administrators; muslim & chinese bureaucrats

Mongols were astute & tolerant leaders but not day-to-day ___; stimulated trade, cultural exchange, artistic creativity; administration carried out by ___ & ___ ___

division; ogedei

Chinggis Khan’s death led to ___ of empire between sons; succeeded by ___

russia; persia; central asia; china

empire was split into 4 khanates after chinggis khan’s death: golden horde (___), ilkhan (___), djagatai (___ ___), yuan/empire of khubilai khan (___)

mongol impacts in china

ended CSE; made chinese more inward-looking

mongol impacts in middle east

over-taxation devasted farms; mongols converted; power vacuum

mongol impacts in russia

tribute; russian leadership in moscow; peasants suffer

plague

Mongol networks not only brought benefits in communication/trade but also the ___

china; trade routes

the black death likely originated in ___; spread across Mongol Empire’s ___ ___ in early 1300s to ME & WEU

maritime expeditions

the black death reached east africa by the 1400s, likely through chinese ___ ___

populated; steppes

people who caught the plague died in days; high death toll in both ___ civilizations and the ___

india; sub-saharan africa

the plague came in an intense first wave and was followed by periodic waves over the next few centuries; ___ and ___-___ ___ were much less affected

faith

___ provided a means to understand/cope with the plague; people sought mercy or atonement for their sins; places where faiths coexisted saw several faiths acting together

passions/appetites

some turned away from faith during the plague, living to satisfy their ___/___

better wages & conditions; resisting demands

labor shortages provoked conflict between scarce workers demanding ___ ___ & ___ and employers ___ ___

peasant revolts; serfdom; innovation; women

the labor shortages in europe due to the plague led to ___ ___ & undermined ___; may have also fostered greater interest in tech. ___ & created more opportunities for ___ at the time

mongol network; declined

the plague was born of the ___ ___ and helped destroy it in the 1300s-1400s: population & trade ___, ME in disarray by 1350s

central asian

the mongols lost control of china, persia, and russia within a century; the ___ ___ trade route was largely closed

land routes; muslim middlemen

disruption of mongol ___ ___ & desire to avoid ___ ___ led the europeans to reach asia by sea; naval tech gave military advantages, and they took on the mongol role in some ways by the 1500s

outskirts; economically developed; forcibly plundered; disease

EU & Mongol similarities: peoples on ___ of est. civ; less ___ ___ than China, India, ME but still ___ ___ their wealth; brought devastating ___/pop decline

culture; people

europe brought much more ___ & their own ___ to areas they conquered than the mongols did; christianity, language western science & tech, settler societies

scholar-gentry; commercial & urban; bolstered

yuan “foreign-ness” & policies alienated the ___-___, yet ___ & ___ boom continued; position of peasants ___

overspending; overexpansion; separation

the yuan’s decline resulted from the usual circumstances: ___ on luxury goods, ___ south; ___ of rulers & rules; greed/taxes

ilkhan; abbasid & baghdad

___ khanate (led by hulegu) set sights on middle eastern wealth; destroyed the ___ & ___ (1258), but the mamluks of egypt & infighting defeated the mongols by 1260

ottomans; safavids

the mongols in the middle east were succeeded by the ___ and the ___

pax mongolica

mongol peace & increased trade

timur-i lang

a complex figure, ruthless conqueror, last great nomadic challenge; product of mongolian mindset: death was always an option

catholic church most powerful yet questioned; labor classes rise from labor shortage

impacts of the bubonic plague in europe

jewish

___ people were blamed for the plague; many were merchants and they lived in separate communities so they weren’t impacted as much