Knowt
AP World Unit 5
Full Unit Review on Youtube:
5.1 Enightenment
Provided the ideological framework for all the revolutions during this period
Definition: An intellectual movement that applied new way of understanding, such as rationalism, and empiricist approaches to both the natural world and human relationships
Rationalism
Argued that reason, rather than emotion or any external authority, is the most reliable source of true knowledge
Empiricism
Idea that true knowledge is gained through the senses, mainly through rigorous experimentation
Empirical and rationalist ways of thinking were developed earlier during the Scientific Revolution in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries
Scientific Revolution
Scientists tossed biblical and religious authority out of the window and used the rigorous process of reason to discover how the world really worked
Experienced scientific breakthroughs in understanding the complexities of:
Cosmos
Internal working of the human body
The Enlightenment is just just an extension of that same kind of scientific and rationalistic thinking,
But Enlightenment philosophers applied these methods to the study of human society
One of the crucial components of the Enlightenment was the questioning and re-examination of the role of religion in public life
Enlightenment began in Europe where most people were Christians and where the Church had been an instrument of state power for a long time
According to Enlightenment thinkers, Christianity is a revealed religion
The words of the Bible along with all its commands was revealed by god and therefore could not be questioned
Enlightenment represented a significant shift of authority, carried over from the Scientific Revolution, from outside a person to inside a person
New ways of relating to the divine were developed
Deism
Exceedingly popular among Enlightenment thinkers
Believed that there was a God that created all things then no longer intervened in the created order
Atheism
Complete rejection of religious belief and any notion of divine beings
New Enlightenment Ideas
Political Ideas
Individualism
Most basic element of society was the individual human and not the collective groups
Progress and expansion of the individual > progress and expansion of the society
Natural Rights
Individual humans are born with certain rights that cannot be infringed upon by government or any other entity
John Locke - argued all humans were born with the natural rights of life, liberty, and property
Social Contract
Human societies, endowed with natural rights, must construct a government of their own will to protect their natural rights
If that government becomes a tyrannical turd, then those people have the right to overthrow that government and establish a new one
Effects of Enlightenment Ideas
Major Revolutions
Enlightenment ideas created the ideological context for these revolutions that occurred in this period, including the American, French, Haitian, and Latin American revolutions
The Enlightenment's emphasis on the rejection of established traditions and new ideas about how political power ought to work played a significant role in each of these great upheavals
Those revolutions in turn created the conditions for the intensification of nationalism
Nationalism: A sense of commonality among a people based on shared language, religion, social customs, and often linked with a desire for territory
Expansion of Suffrage
Suffrage: Right to Vote
After the American Revolution, laws were passed only white males with land could vote
But in the first half of the nineteenth century, laws were passed that recognized the right of all white males to vote
In the second half of the nineteenth century, black males had gained the right to vote
One significant reason was the Enlightenment ideas like liberty and equality were revered in America as part of the cultural heritage beginning with the Declaration of Independence
Abolition of Slavery
Enlightenment thinkers criticize slavery on account of its complete for people’s natural rights, most notably liberty
In response to a powerful abolitionist movement, Great Britain abolished slavery in 1807
Britain was also the wealthiest nation in the world and they gained much of that wealth during the Industrial Revolution by means of paid labor
Abolition was a natural move, but it also made economic sense at the time
Enslaved people themselves also contributed to the abolition of slavery
Great Jamaica Revolt
Massive slave rebellion in British Jamaica
Scale and casualties of that rebellion played a significant role in Britain’s decision to abolish slavery throughout their empire
End of Serfdom
In the midst of the transition from agricultural to industrial economies during the Industrial Revolution, serfs, which were peasants bound in coerced labor, became more and more unnecessary to economic flourishing
Peasant Revolts
Induced state leaders in England, France and Russia to abolish serfdom
Calls for Womens’ Suffrage
Feminist Movement
Women began to advocate for rights in all areas of life, not least voting
Olympe de Gouges
Her work, The Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen, harshly criticized the French Constitution for sidelining women in the birth of post-revolutionary France
Seneca Falls Convention in 1848
Women organized themselves in a gathering to call for a constitutional amendment that recognized women's right to vote
5.2 Revolutions
Causes of Revolution
Rise of Nationalism
A sense of commonality among a people based on shared language, religion, social customs, and often linked with a desire for territory
New development in this period
So far in world history, most empires had a variety of people under the empire
None of those empires were associated with a singular people that shared an ethnicity, language, etc.
However in this period, the notion that a people who shared a culture, history, and ethnicity ought to dwell in their own territory and rule themselves was becoming increasingly strong
Some states tried to use this growing nationalistic fervor to their advantage to foster a sense of unity among their people
Did this by injecting nationalist themes into their school, emphasizing public rituals that glorified the nation and its culture, and by pushing people into military service
Ex: Russian leaders required the Russian language to be spoken throughout their colonial holdings to create a sense of unity among the various ethnicities under the authority of the state
Backfired in in places like Poland, Ukraine, and Finland
Each place had their own languages that identified them as a people
The imposition of Russian language only created a powerful counternationalism against Russian authority
Political Dissent
Widespread discontent with monarchist and imperial rule
Revolutions took place in the context of a much more generalized rejection of authority across the world
Ex: Safavid Empire
Tried to impose Harsh new taxes
Met with rebellion from various militaristic nomadic groups on the edges of the empire
Led to the weakening of the state
Weakening was so bad that in the early 18th century, outside invaders officially put an end to the Safavids
Ex: Wahabi Movement
Sought to reform the corrupted form of Islam endemic in the Ottoman Empire
Combined with plenty of other problems contributed to the long decline of the Ottoman empire
New Ways of Thinking
Development of new ideologies and systems of government
Popular sovereignty
Power to govern was in the hands of the people
Democracy
People have the right to vote and influence the policies of the government
Liberalism
An economic and political ideology that emphasized the protection of civil rights, representative government, the protection of private property, and economic freedom
The Atlantic Revolutions
All were inspired by democratic ideals
American Revolution
Began in 1776
Backstory:
British had established 13 colonies in North America on the Atlantic coast
Because Britain was so far removed from the colonies by the Atlantic Ocean, the colonies developed a culture, system of government, and an economic framework without interference from Britain
After the Seven years war, part of which was fought on the North American continent, Britain’s war debt was substantial
Britain decided to implement new taxes on the colonies to pay off the war debt
Because of new taxes, the curtailment of previously enjoyed freedom, and a widespread adoption of Enlightenment principles of government, the American Revolution began
Enlightenment principles were on full display in the Declaration of Independence
Overflowing with ideas of popular sovereignty, natural rights, and the social contract
With help from the French, the Americans won the war and the U.S.A was born in 1783
Provided the template for other nations throughout the world for a successful overthrow of oppressive power and the establishment of a republican style government
French Revolution
Began in 1789
As soldiers returned from fighting in the American Revolution, many were inflamed with ideals of democracy and started questioning their own absolutist king
When Louis the 16th attempted to tighten his control over France in order to pay his own enormous war debts, the people of France rebelled, overthrew the government, and established a republic
Enlightenment principles also filled the main document of this revolution, mainly the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
Elegantly championed the ideas of natural rights and popular sovereignty
Haitian Revolution
Began in 1791
Colonial property of France and was the most prosperous colony in the world
When enslaved black populations head about French revolutionaries calling for liberty and equality, they decided to also fight for liberty and equality
Under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture, the enslaved Haitians revolted and eventually defeated the French
Established the second republic in the Western Hemisphere after the U.S and the first black government in this region
Latin American Revolutions
Spanish and Portuguese colonies through the Americas were similarly influenced by Enlightenment ideas
Began to resent the increasing control their imperial parents were exerting upon them
This resentment was particularly present in the Creole class
Made up of people of European descent but born in the Americas
Put them a position below the peninsulares on the social hierarchy
In 1808, Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and deposition of the Portuguese monarch created an unstable political situation in the American colonies
Created the occasion for revolution in Latin America
Creole military leaders, like Simon Bolivar, appealed to colonial subjects across racial lines with Enlightenment ideals
Bolivar summarized these ideals in his letter from Jamaica
This document, just like other revolutionary documents, contained Enlightenment, including popular sovereignty and the right to self rule among the various Spanish colonies
In a series of long and protracted wars, one Latin American colony after another won its independence
Many of them formed republican governments
Other Nationalist Movements
While nationalism was a prime factor in the full-blown revolutions, there were also many other nationalist movements
Resulted in not revolution, but calls for higher degree of self-rule in some case and national unification in other cases
Propaganda movement in the Philippines
Also a Spanish colony
Imposed a similar racial hierarchy here as they did in their American colonies
Tightly controlled opportunities for education
Only the wealthy creoles and mestizos got university education
When they went to Europe for this education, Europe was filled with nationalist and Enlightenment ideas
Some of those Filipino students absorbed those ideas and brought them back to the Philippines
Published these ideas like crazy
Even though they weren’t calling for independence from Spain, Spanish authorities knew where this could lead
So, they sought to suppress the movement
As a result, the Philippine Revolution broke out at the end of the century
Unification of Italy and Germany
Before this period, both Italy and Germany were made up of dozens of fragmented states
But, under the influence of nationalism, military leaders from both nations inspired their respective populations to come together and unify each place under a single government
Through a combination of diplomacy and deft military tactics, this nationalist fervor resulted in the unification of these fragmented regions
5.3 Industrial Revolution
Industrial Revolution Defined
Definition: the process by which states transitioned from primarily agrarian economies to industrial economies
Transition in which goods for sell went from being made by hand to being made by machine
This transition fundamentally changed the world’s balance of political power, reordered societies, and made industrial nations rich
Why Great Britain Came First
Started in 1750
7 factors to consider
Proximity to waterways
Had an abundance of rivers and canals
Enabled the efficient and rapid transportation of manufactured goods to various markets
Geographical distribution of coal and iron
The first phase of the revolution would be powered by the burning of coal
Britain had the geographical luck to have metric buttloads of it beneath their soil
Additionally, coal power increased efficiency in the production of iron
Used to construct bridges, machines, railroad, etc
All contributed to their rapid industrialization
Abundant access to foreign resources
Britain had spent the last period building a massive maritime empire across the world
Thus, they had access to prodigious amounts of raw materials that weren’t present on the island
North American Colonies provided timber in abundance
Exploited India for cotton
Improved agricultural productivity
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, many places in Europe, especially Britain, experienced an agricultural revolution in which the amount of food grown on farms increased significantly
Happened due to new methods of farming
Crop Rotation
Kep part of the land unplanted, so the fertility of the soil would be maintained
Seed Drill
Ensured seeds could be planted more efficiently and accurately which led to less waste and greater harvests
New Foods entering Europe due to the Columbian Exchange
Ex: The potato was introduced to Europe from the Americas
Diversified European diets
Especially among impoverished folk in rural areas
Made them healthier and increased their life expectancy
Led to a massive population growth, right before the Industrial Revolution
Rapid Urbanization
Because farming was becoming more and more mechanized, less and less people were needed to maintain the fields
At the very same time, cities in Britain were becoming hubs of industrial manufacturing and were in desperate need of need of human labor
Led to a massive rural to urban migration of people looking for jobs and so these industrial cities grew quickly
Legal Protection of Private Property
Britain was uni que in that they passed laws to protect entrepreneurs
Entrepreneur: people who took risks to start and build a new business in the manufacturing sector
This gave Britain a significant head start in industrialization as entrepreneurs felt safe enough to risk investment
Led to lots of new businesses
Accumulation of Capital
Largely to do from the wealth gained through the Atlantic Slave trade, Britain had many well-to-do folk who had excess capital
With all this extra money, they invested in startup industrial businesses that became the backbone of the Industrial Revolution
The Factory System
Factory: A place where goods for sale were mass produced by machines
The first iteration of the factory concentrated production in a single location and was powered by water(water frame)
In textile factories, the machine was connected to a “spinning jenny”
Operated looms that created textiles way faster than by hand
Because these machines didn’t any skill to operate, a significant specialization of labor began to occur
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, goods were made by artisans that had hard-learned every step of the craft
Now, with machines making goods, workers were easily replaceable, only performing one action over and over again
5.4 Spread of Industrialization
The Effect of Steampower
Steam Engine: a machine that converted fossil fuels into mechanical energy
With the introduction of the steam engine, a factory didn’t have to be near a water source
Could be placed “dang near anywhere”
This also sped up the pace of the revolution rapidly
Steam engines were put in ships to make steamships
Mass produced goods could be transported further and faster
Further connected the world into a growing global economy
Shifting World Economies
Some places industrialized slowly while others industrialized quickly
What explains the difference between quick adopters and slow adopters?
The degree to which the also had the seven industrial factors that kicked off Britain’s industrialization
Proximity to waterways
Geographical distribution of coal and iron
Abundant access to foreign resources
Improved agricultural productivity
Rapid Urbanization
Legal Protection of Private Property
Accumulation of Capital
Many places in Eastern and Southern Europe were slow adopters of industrialization
Lacked abundant coal deposits
Land Locked
Hindered by historically powerful groups(nobility)
Nobility didn’t want their power challenged by this new economic arrangement
In the 18th and 19th century, the world was becoming divided into industrialized nations and non-industrialized nations
Industrialized nations(U.S, Great Britain, France) began to claim major portions of the world’s global manufacturing output and economic wealth
Countries in the Middle East and Asia, who had previously been manufacturing powerhouses of the world started to see their share of production for the world decline
Decline of textile production in India and Egypt
Both nations were renowned for their quality textile production
With the rise of mass-produced cheap textiles in Britain, production in these regions waned
Shipbuilding in India and SE Asia
Felt an increase in shipbuilding prior to the revolution
After Britain’s colonial takeover of the region, the shipbuilding sector was largely controlled by Britain
Forced manufacturers to build ships for the Royal Navy
Industrial countries made and sold a lot of stuff, non-industrialized countries not so much
Power began to shift to industrialized countries
Industrialized Nations Compare
France
Once Napoleon was out of the way, France began to adopt industrial technologies
Way slower than Britain in industrialization
Lack of abundant coal and iron deposits
Even then, before he was ousted, Napoleon laid the foundation for French industrialization by constructing the Quentin Canal
Major waterway connecting Paris with the iron and coal fields of the North
Soon, government sponsored the construction of railroads
By 1830, textile factories were built, which created a significant cotton industry for France
Bonus: Revived their slumping silk industry
Compared to Britain, France industrialized much slower than Britain
But because of this slower adoption, France was spared some of that intense social upheavals Britain experienced due to this rapid transition
U.S
Once the Civil War was over, the U.S industrialized real fast
Became a major player in the global economic stage
Mainly due to the fact that it possessed many of the same factors that Britain had
Massive territory
Abundant access to natural resources
Political stability post Civil War
Rapid population growth
Both through natural production and migration
Provided an expanding market for mass-produced goods
U.S economy became exceedingly prosperous
Higher standard of living living for its workers than its counterparts in Europe
Russia
By the end of the 19th century, Russia still was under the dictatorial control of an absolutist Tsar
However, the Tsar realized that if Russia didn’t industrialize, they would be left behind
Adopted many industrial technologies
Railroads
Steam engine technologies
One significant achievement was the construction of the Trans-Siberian railroad stretching from Moscow to the Pacific Ocean
Led to a significant increase in trade with eastern states, such as China
Created an interdependent market throughout Russia
Although Russia’s industrialization project brought them somewhat on par with other industrial powers, the top-down approach yielded brutal conditions for workers
Led to many uprisings among the workers and would eventually lead to the Russian Revolution of 1905
Unlike the U.S in which industrialization was largely driven from below by workers seeking new opportunities, Russia’s industrialization was as state-driven affair in response to Russia’s lagging development compared to Western Europe
Japan
Many Asian states were declining in power as Western industrial states became the “big boys” on the field
Places like China, had been for centuries among the most powerful economic states in the world were getting taken advantage of by Western Powers
Forced them into submission through unequal treaties
Japan refused to fall under similar conditions
Began a defensive industrialization process known as the Meiji Restoration
State sponsored industrialization, similar in idea to Russian industrialization, but much more successful
Borrowed heavily from Western technology and Western education
Quickly became an industrial power in the East
So much so that in a couple decades, Japan would be the most powerful state in the region
5.5 Technology of Industrial Age
Fuels and Engines
First Industrial Revolution
1750 - 1830
Mainly Confined within Britain
Second Industrial Revolution
1870 - 1914
Spread beyond Britain to the rest of Europe, U.S, and Russia, and Japan
Industrial Power
Coal was the main source of fuel
Burned way hotter than wood
The main engine of the first Industrial Revolution was the steam engine
The steam engine was developed by British scientist James Watt
Used the hotness of coal to create steam and turn turbines
The effect of the adoption of the steam engine is that factory machines no longer had to be power by rapidly moving water in streams
Factories could now be built anywhere in the world
Became a chief reason for the rapid spread of the factory system
Also used to power locomotives which ran along railroads
Would be significant means of transporting mass-produced goods to market quickly
Steam engines were equipped to steam ships as well
All of which increased the efficiency and speed with which products could be sold
Many ports started developing coaling stations for ships to refuel
Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869
Shortened the distance from Europe to Asia greatly
Led to multiplication of steamships and the rapid expansion of trade
Oil
Marker of the Second Industrial Revolution
As methods were developed to refine the liquid into products like gasoline, the internal combustion engine was developed to harness that energy
Smaller and more efficient than the steam engine
Would go on to power a new development in transportation, namely automobiles
Both of these sources of fuel dramatically increased the amount of energy available to humans during this period, even if it came with significant environmental costs(air pollution)
Second Industrial Revolution Technology
Steel
Main building material in industrialization, compared to iron in the first revolution
The Bessemer Process combined iron with carbon and blasted hot air into it
The steel that emerged from the Bessemer Process was far stronger and versatile than iron alone
Steel also became way cheaper to produce, so it became the preferred building material for constructing bridges, railroads, and ships
Chemical engineering
Synthetic dyes were developed for textiles which were much cheaper than the organic dyes used in the first revolution
Vulcanization was a process developed to make rubber harder and more durable
Rubber was widely used in factories to make belts
Later would be used to make tires for automobiles
Electricity
Most significant impact on industrialized nations
Thanks to Thomas Edison, electricity was used to power light bulbs
Not only lit factories but also people’s homes
Soon, electric streetcars and subways were developed to provide mass transit in major cities that were becoming large and complex
Telegraph
Developed by Sameul Morse in the 1840s
Able to send communication across wires to distant places by using short and long electrical signals
Became known as the Morse Code
In the 1870s, a telegraph wire was laid across the Atlantic Ocean
Connected Britain with the U.s, which further developed these two industrial powers
Effects of New Technology
Development of Interior Regions
For most of world history, the most developed cities and states were located in coastal areas because that’s where most of the trade/interaction happened
But with the incredible expansion of railroads, including several transcontinental railroad in the U.S and Russia
New settlements were developed in places that were previously much harder to reach
The telegraph made instant communication across great distances possible
Enable manufacturers to gain real-time intelligence on market conditions in distant places
All this means more stuff made, more stuff sold, and more getting rich
Increase in Trade and Migration
Because of all these developments, global trade multiplied by 10 between 1850 and 1913
As a result, states across the world were becoming more closely interlinked into a global economy
New transportation technologies(railroads and steamships) contributed to a massive increase in migration as well
By the mid 19th century, almost half of Europe’s entire population had migrated from rural areas to urban manufacturing centers in search of jobs
Because of various factors like famine and political instability in the late 19th century, nearly 20% of Europe’s population migrated to the Americas and Australia and South Africa
5.6 Government Sponsored Industrialization
Egyption(Ottoman) Industrialization
Some states decided to enact a form of defensive industrialization, much more limited, just to not be overpowered by industrialized nations
Egypt operated mostly separately from Ottoman rule thanks its powerful military government
The Ottoman Empire was struggling and declining due to internal corruption and conflicts and therefore had little energy or wealth to invest in industrialization
Would later change under the Tanzimat Reforms
Under the leadership of Muhammed Ali, Egypt went ahead and took steps toward industrialization on its own
Further eroded their dependence on Ottoman sultans
Egyptian/Ottoman Tanzimat Reforms
Industrial Projects
Textile and weapons factories multiplied across the landscape
Agriculture
Peasants were directed to grow crops like wheat and cotton
Government purchased these crops and then sold for profit on the world market
Tariffs
Increased taxes on imported goods
Did so to protect the growing development of the Egyptian economy
Despite the great strides made towards industrialization, the project wasn’t as successful as in Western Europe and the U.S
Great Britain wasn’t happy that Egypt was quickly growing and industrializing because Egypt was the quickest way to access trade networks in Asia
So when Egypt went to war with the Ottomans in 1839, Britain intervened
Result: Forced Egypt to remove tariffs and other barriers to trade that have protected Egyptian industry
Thus, British manufactured goods flooded into Egypt
Egypt’s infant factories couldn’t compete, thus stunting the industrial project and keep Egypt under the British
Japan Industrializes
Very successful industrialization
Previously, Japan was very isolated from the rest of the world, with only one Dutch trading port
Factors that changed their attitude
Western Powers
Western powers dominated other Asian countries like China
Made China subservient to Western economic interests
Japan didn’t want the same thing to happen to them
Matthew Perry
U.S commodore Matthew Perry came to Japan with a fleet of steam powered ships stacked with guns
Sent a letter to the shogun demanding Japan open trade relations with the U.S
Used the steamships as intimidation
Sent a white flag of surrender with that letter
Ultimately, Japan decided to initiate an aggressive state sponsored program of industrialization as a defensive measure against Western domination
Facilitated by a Japanese Civil war in 1868
Led to the overthrow of the shogunate
Reestablishment of an emperor by a group of young samurai who became fearful of Western intrusion and continued Japanese isolationism
Result: Meiji Restoration
Japan sought to escape foreign domination by adopting much of the industrial practices that had made the West powerful
Meiji Restoration
Basically borrowed in wholesale from the West
Culture
Japan sent emissaries to major industrial powers to learn about their technology, culture, and education systems, and political arrangements and implemented it in their own state
Pumped the brakes and began to borrow more selectively
Government
Japan established a constitution that provided for an elected parliament, which they borrowed from Germany
Infrastructure
The state funding building of railroads, the establishment of national banking system, and a development of of industrial factories for textiles and munitions
Result was Japan became a major industrial power in Asia
Gained enough power to deal with Europeans and Americans on equal terms
Not the case anywhere else in the region
5.7 Economics of Industrial Revolution
The Slow Death of Mercantilism
Mercantilism
State driven system
Played a massive role in European exploration and imperialism
Free Market Economics
Better fit for industrialization
Not state-driven, but market driven
Mercantilism was abandoned in favor of free market economics
One significant influence on this transition was the publication of the Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith
Criticized mercantilism as coercive and only benefited the elite
He promoted laissez faire economics
“Get the government out of the economy and let people make their own economic decisions”
This way suppliers and consumers would react to each other based on the laws of supply and demand(Smith called it the Invisible Hand)
Everyone would be a lot better off
He argued that if this free market scheme was applied, then wealth would be more evenly distributed, and prosperity would know no bounds
After 1815, several western governments abandoned some of their state regulations on trade which resulted in increased trade and greater wealth
Even then free market policies had its own critics
In industrialized nations, the idea that free market economies distribute wealth wasn’t the whole story
This capitalist form of economy created a working class that in many cases were exceedingly poor and labored under horrible conditions
Jeremy Bentham
Argued the cure for the suffering of the working class and society wasn’t free market economics but government legislation
Friedrich List
Rejected global free market principles as a trick by the British to bring other economies under its own control
His work led to the development of the Zollverein, a custom union that reduced trade barriers between German states but put tariffs on imported goods
Trans-National Corporations
Definition: A company that is established and controlled in one country but also established large operations in many other countries
Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation
Opened in 1865 in British controlled Hong Kong to organize and control British imperial ventures
“How else would they keep tabs on the metric buttloads of wealth generated by selling illegal opium to the Chinese?”
Another branch was opened in Shanghai later in Japan
All of which generated enormous wealth for British bankers
Unilever Corporation
A joint company established by the British and the Dutch that manufactured household goods, most known for soap
Unilever opened its factories in countries across the world while sourcing its raw material from colonial holdings in West Africa and the Belgian Congo
Relief on newly developed practices in banking and finance to fund these corporations
Stock Markets
In order to finance the building of these large scale businesses they raised funds by selling stocks
Stock: small amount of ownership in the corporation
People could buy these stocks on international stock markets like the New York stock exchange in the U.S
When the company profited, so to did the stockholder
Limited Liability Corporation
Protected the financial investments of its owners
Joint-stock companies 2.0
This meant owners could take risks by investing money into a corporate venture
Enjoyed a certain amount of financial protection
They could only lose the amount of money they invested
Effects of Industrial Capitalism
On the whole, all western industrialized nations were far richer in 1900 than they were in 1800
The main effect was the rising standard of living and greater access to consumer goods that people enjoyed
The rapid enrichment of industrialized societies created a new and growing middle class
Wealthy enough to buy the dizzying array of mass-produced consumer goods that were flooding the market
With the further development of manufacturing technology, that made production of those goods more efficient
Made the goods cheaper, meaning more people had access to everyday goods that improved their lives
In many industrialized societies, the continued development of mechanized farming led to abundant harvests that both increased the variety and abundance of food available
Led to longer lifespans for many people
5.8 Reactions
Calls For Reform
Due to horrible working conditions, extensive hours, and minimum wage, the working class began to call for reforms
Political Reform
A big reason for this is Western nation had been recognizing the right to vote for more and more people in their population
Previously, political parties only had to appeal to the elite upperclassmen for votes
Now that the working class could also vote, and they made up most of the population, this led to the rise of mass-based political parties
These parties aimed to represent the interests of workers
Conservatives and liberals in Britain and France incorporated social reforms into their platforms because more and more people who wanted those reforms were voting
Social Reform
Life in the industrial working class was hard
Working class people organized themselves into social societies providing insurance for sickness and social events
Educational Reform
Between 1870 and 1914, the majority of European governments passed compulsory education laws
Done to get boys and girls between the age of 6 -12 into school
High paying jobs became more technical and specialized, and a compulsory education prepares children for these kinds of jobs
Urban Reform
Due the overpopulation in urban cities, whose infrastructure couldn’t handle the population growth, the urban areas were dangerously overcrowded and “stanky”
People just tossed their “nasties” out the window onto the street
Various governments passed laws and invested in sanitation infrastructure like sewers
Dumped the “nasties” into the river, which caused its own problems later
Rise of Labor Unions
Definition: A collective of workers who join together to protect their own interests
Prior to these reforms, labor unions were illegal
All the power for change was in the hands of wealth capitalists and factory owners, who weren't too flexible
Before this, no one worker could affect change in the system,
But labor unions were collectives of hundred/thousand of workers
Gave them a lot of power to negotiate with employers to improve their lives
As labor Unions spread throughout the world, they used this new power to get higher wages, limited working hours, and improved working conditions
By the end of the 19th century, British labor unions could count nearly 2 million workers on their roles while American and German unions had about million each
Some of these unions turned into proper political parties that sought enact reforms on behalf of the working classes in the highest levels of government
Ex: German Social Democratic Party
Formed out of the General German Workers Association
Advocated for Marxist reforms in Germany
Aimed to transform the capitalist system of private ownership of the means of production to social ownership of the means of production
Ideological Reactions: Marxism
Karl Marx
Originally German, but lived in Great Britain for a long time
Witnessed firsthand the suffering and injustices the working class endured on account of a society filled with capitalism
Marx believed that capitalism was unstable by nature, especially since it created a sharp class division in industrial societies
The upper class lived leisurely lives, but the only reason they could do that is because the working class suffered to keep hem wealthy
Marx’s reckoned that that situation couldn’t go on forever and the inevitable result would be a violent revolution of the lower classes against the upper classes
Would result in a classless society
Marx and Engles published these ideas in the Communist Manifesto in 1848
Called their approach scientific socialism
Marx argued that history obeys laws just as the physical world obeys the laws of physics
Therefore, history moves through patterns and stages
History’s major energy arises out of class struggle
Essentially, he argued that the intense societal changes brought on by the Industrial Revolution ad violently exacerbated the division between the two groups of Marxist classification, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat
Bourgeoisie owned the means of production like factories
Proletariat were exploited by the bourgeoisie for their own benefit
Once the proletariat became aware of the arrangement, they would rise up in a cataclysmic moment of revolution and overthrow the bourgeoisie
Would mark the end of class struggle
China Attempts Industrialization
In the late 18th century, China continually snubbed British traders(big mistake)
Result was a trade deficit that Britain sought to remedy
Started to import illegal opium
Highly addictive drug from British controlled India
As the drug began to have seriously negative consequences on the Chinese population, Qing authorities began to crack down on the illegal trade
Led to two conflicts known as the Opium Wars
Long story short, Britain was an industrial power, and China was not
So British industrial might easily defeated the less modernized Chinese forces and forced them into signing unequal treaties that opening several trading ports against their will
This defeat was like blood in the water, and all the industrialized sharks in the world smelled it and were like “MMMM that smells GOOD.”
By the end of the century, more industrialized nations took advantage of China’s weakness and carved it up into various spheres of influence in which they had exclusive trading rights
China was one of the most powerful nations in the world, so they weren’t just gonna take this beating
Throughout the 1860s and 1870s, Chinese authorities responded to this invasion of Western powers with the Self-Strengthening movement
Series of reforms that sought to take some steps toward industrialization
Also sought to revitalize culture
The full benefits of industrialization were hindered by Chinese conservatives who resisted these developments
The reforms threatened the power of the land-owning class
The result was a half-hearted program at modernization
The program was put to the test in the Sino-Japanese War
With a crushing defeat at the hands of the industrial Japanese, China’s Self-Strengthening Movement was deemed a failure
Ottoman Modernization
By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottomans had become known among the Western Powers as the sick man of Europe,
Owing to its continued territorial loss to industrial countries
Inability to raise sufficient tax revenue
Just like China, the Ottomans had become unwilling subservient to powerful industrial nations, because they had not industrialized
Therefore, just like China, Ottoman authorities decided that a kind of defensive industrialization was necessary
Tanzimat reforms
Far more aggressive and transformative that China’s limp Self-Strengthening movement
Built textile factories
Implemented Western-style law codes and courts
Expansive education systems for children
All of which were more secular in nature and divorced from the historic Islamic character of the empire
As a result of these reforms, a new group seeking widespread political change emerged known as the Young Ottomans
Desired the establishment of a European style parliament and a constitutional government that would limit the power of absolutist sultans
In 1876, the sultan conceded and accepted a constitution and a parliament
However, when a potential war with Russia was beginning to brew, the sultan leaned right into his conservatism and rejected any curtailment of his power
Lasted for something like 3 decades
Even so, the Ottoman Reforms and industrialization projects would be more effective than China’s, but no so effective that it wouldn’t prevent the empire from falling apart at the beginning of the 20th century
5.9 Society/Changes
New Social Classes
Industrial Working Class
Made up of factory workers and miners
Composed of rural farmers that migrated to industrial urban areas in search of jobs on the account of increased mechanization of farming that had left them jobless
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, most workers possessed some kind of skill that their work required
Ex: Farmers were taught the delicate art of plowing fields and tending to livestock
Artisans had developed the craft of carving wood and assembling it
Now, all those in the working class spent their days in factories performing unskilled labor
It was the machines that were the precision instruments, not the humans
This meant the working class was viewed by factory managers as kind of interchangeable parts themselves since they could be replaced with another unskilled worker
Benefits of the Working Class
Their wages were higher than in many of the rural places they came from
Costs of the Working Class
Danger of factory work and mining
Crowded living conditions in shoddy tenements
Spread of Disease
Mind-numbing repetitive work fell on them
Middle Class
Benefitted the most from industrialization
Includes white collar workers such as wealthy factory owners and managers, lawyers, doctors, and teachers
Called white collar workers because they wore white collars and didn’t get filthy like the working class
Could afford manufactured products that improved their quality of life and some in the upper middle class could buy their way into the aristocracy
Understood themselves as having risen from the ranks of the working class, strictly by their own ingenuity and effort
Anyone who didn’t rise to the middle class was lazy and lethargic
Industrialists
Sometimes known as the captains of industry
At the top of the social hierarchy, the wealth they gained by owning industrial corporation allowed them to become more powerful than the traditional landed aristocracy
Women in Industrialization
Working class women
Worked wage-earning jobs in factories since their husbands’ wages weren’t sufficient to sustain the family
In the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, children as young as 5 worked in the mines as well
Most folks in the working class had migrated from rural areas and many of them were farmers
However men, women, and children in the industrial environment were often split up and worked in different factories/mines
While children were still working, they were doing so apart from the traditional context of the family
Once the dangers of Industrial work became clear, some governments passed laws to remove children from the difficulties of industrial work and get them into school
Middle Class Women
Husbands earned enough money to support the family
In general, they didn’t work,
They stayed home and remained in their “separate sphere”
Middle class women were increasingly defined by their domestic roles as homemakers whose main task was to create a safe haven for their working men and nurturing environment in which to raise children
Challenges of Industrialization
The rapid pace of industrialization meant that industrial cities grew far too quickly for their infrastructure to keep up
Pollution
Coal smoke from factories and steam ships hovered over towns and cities
Often resulted in a toxic fog that lingered over cities, causing health problems for the inhabitants
Both industrial and human waste was often dumped into nearby rivers that polluted the drinking water
Ex: The water in London’s River Tim had gotten so low due to drought and all the fecal deposits, produced a horrible stink that hung over the city for a long time
Housing Shortages
More people were migrating into cities than there were places to live
Places for them to live were constructed hastily, known as tenements
In some cases, several families lived together in small apartments
Poorly ventilated and sanitation was almost non-existent
Created the conditions for the rapid spread of disease(typhoid and cholera)
Increased Crime
With so many poor and working class people concentrated in urban areas, there was a significant rise both in theft and violent crime
Theft: Sometimes done to survive
Violent Crime: Associated with high levels of alcohol consumption