amarah Vocabulary for Unit 4: Personality, Motivation, and Emotion

Abraham Maslow

an American psychologist known for his humanistic theory of personality and the hierarchy of needs, which suggests that individuals strive for self-actualization and personal growth once their basic needs are met.

Alfred Adler

an Austrian psychiatrist and founder of individual psychology, known for his theories on the importance of social dynamics, striving for superiority, and the influence of early childhood experiences on personality development.

Carl Jung

a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of analytical psychology, known for his theories on the collective unconscious, archetypes, and the process of individuation.

Carl Rogers

an American psychologist and founder of client-centered therapy, known for his humanistic theory of personality, emphasis on unconditional positive regard, and the importance of self-concept and self-actualization in personal growth.

collective unconscious

a concept in analytical psychology proposed by Carl Jung, referring to a shared reservoir of unconscious memories, symbols, and experiences that are common to all humans and inherited across generations.

defense mechanisms or Ego Defense Mechanisms

unconscious strategies or tactics used by the ego to protect against anxiety, threats, or conflicts, by distorting reality, repressing impulses, or redirecting emotions.

Denial (Freud Defense Mechanism)

a defense mechanism in which unpleasant thoughts, feelings, wishes, or events are ignored or excluded from conscious awareness. It may take such forms as refusal to acknowledge the reality of a terminal illness, financial problem, substance use or other addiction, or partner's infidelity. Denial is an unconscious process that functions to resolve emotional conflict or reduce anxiety.

Displacement (Freud Defense mechanism)

the transfer of feelings or behavior from their original object to another person or thing. In psychoanalytic theory, displacement is considered to be a defense mechanism in which the individual discharges tensions associated with, for example, hostility and fear by taking them out on a less threatening target.

ego

the rational and decision-making component of personality that operates on the reality principle, mediating between the demands of the id, superego, and external reality, while managing internal conflicts and desires.

free association

a psychoanalytic technique in which individuals are encouraged to express themselves freely and spontaneously, revealing unconscious thoughts, emotions, and memories without censorship or judgment.

hierarchy of needs

a theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, suggesting that human motivation is organized into a hierarchical structure of needs, ranging from basic physiological needs to higher-order psychological needs such as self-esteem and self-actualization.

humanistic theories

psychological theories that emphasize the inherent goodness, self-actualizing tendency, and potential for growth and fulfillment in individuals, focusing on subjective experiences, personal values, and self-determination.

id

the primitive and instinctual component of personality that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of basic needs and desires, regardless of social norms or consequences.

Karen Horney

a German psychoanalyst and pioneer of feminist psychology, known for her theories on neurosis, the impact of social and cultural factors on personality, and the concept of basic anxiety.

motivation

the processes that initiate, guide, and sustain goal-directed behavior, including the internal and external factors that energize and direct behavior towards achieving specific goals or outcomes.

Preconscious mind

in the classical psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the level of the psyche that contains thoughts, feelings, and impulses not presently in awareness but that can be more or less readily called into consciousness.

Projection

in psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theories, the process by which one attributes one's own individual positive or negative characteristics, affects, and impulses to another person or group. This is often a defense mechanism in which unpleasant or unacceptable impulses, stressors, ideas, affects, or responsibilities are attributed to others.

projective test

a psychological assessment tool used to reveal unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts by presenting individuals with ambiguous stimuli and interpreting their responses, which are thought to reflect underlying personality dynamics.

psychodynamic theories

psychological theories that emphasize the role of unconscious processes, inner conflicts, and early childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior, particularly within the framework of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory.

psychoanalysis

a therapeutic approach developed by Sigmund Freud that aims to explore and resolve unconscious conflicts, desires, and motivations through techniques such as free association, dream analysis, and interpretation of unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Rationalization (Freud self-defense mechanism)

an ego defense in which apparently logical reasons are given to justify unacceptable behavior that is motivated by unconscious instinctual impulses.

Reaction formation (Freud self-defense mechanism)

in psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism in which unacceptable or threatening unconscious impulses are denied and are replaced in consciousness with their opposite.

Regression

a return to a prior, lower state of cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning.

Repression

a defense mechanism that involves pushing threatening or anxiety-provoking thoughts, feelings, or memories into the unconscious mind, preventing conscious awareness and reducing distress.

Rorschach inkblot test

a projective psychological test consisting of symmetrical inkblots that individuals are asked to interpret, revealing unconscious thoughts, feelings, and perceptions based on their responses.

self-actualization

the highest level of psychological development and fulfillment according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, characterized by the realization of one's potential, pursuit of personal growth, and fulfillment of intrinsic values and aspirations.

Self-actualizing tendency

It is a desire present in all living things that pushes the organism toward growth.

self-transcendence

a concept proposed by Abraham Maslow, referring to the capacity to transcend personal concerns, ego boundaries, and individual identity in pursuit of higher meaning, connection, and spiritual experiences.

Sigmund Freud

an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, known for his theories on the structure of the mind (id, ego, superego), stages of psychosexual development, and defense mechanisms.

Sublimation

in classical psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism in which unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives are unconsciously channeled into socially acceptable modes of expression and redirected into new, learned behaviors.

superego

the moral and ethical component of personality that internalizes societal standards, values, and ideals, serving as the conscience and enforcing moral judgments and standards of behavior.

Thematic-Apperception Test

a projective psychological test used to assess personality and unconscious motives by presenting individuals with ambiguous pictures and asking them to create stories or narratives about what is happening in the pictures.

unconditional positive regard

an attitude of acceptance, respect, and nonjudgmental regard toward individuals, regardless of their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, which fosters self-acceptance, authenticity, and personal growth.

Unconscious mind

a reservoir of thoughts, feelings, memories, and desires that are not consciously accessible to awareness but may influence behavior, emotions, and perceptions.

Unconscious processes

in psychoanalytic theory, a psychical process that takes place in the unconscious; for example, repression.

Agreeableness

the tendency to act in a cooperative, unselfish manner, construed as one end of a dimension of individual differences (agreeableness vs. disagreeableness) in the Big Five personality model.

Openness to experience

a dimension of the Big Five personality model and the five-factor personality model that refers to individual differences in the tendency to be open to new aesthetic, cultural, or intellectual experiences.

Extraversion

One of the elements of the Big Five and five-factor personality models, characterized by an orientation of one's interests and energies toward the outer world of people and things rather than the inner world of subjective experience.

Conscientiousness

The tendency to be organized, responsible, and hardworking, construed as one end of a dimension of individual differences in the Big Five personality model.

Emotional Stability or Neuroticism

One of the dimensions of the five-factor personality model and the Big Five Personality model, characterized by a chronic level of emotional instability and proneness to psychological distress.

Albert Bandura

A psychologist known for his social-cognitive theory of personality, self-efficacy theory, and research on observational learning (modeling), which emphasizes the role of cognitive processes, social learning, and self-regulation in behavior.

Behavioral approach

A psychological perspective that focuses on observable behaviors, environmental influences, and learning principles (such as classical and operant conditioning) in explaining personality and behavior.

Big Five Factors

Theory that contains five broad dimensions of personality traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, which capture the major dimensions of individual differences in personality.

Empirically derived test

A psychological assessment tool developed through systematic research and statistical analysis of large datasets, ensuring reliability and validity based on empirical evidence.

Factor analysis

A broad family of mathematical procedures for reducing a set of interrelations among manifest variables to a smaller set of unobserved latent variables or factors.

Frustration-aggression principle

Suggests that frustration, resulting from the blocking of goals or desires, often leads to aggressive behavior or responses.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

A widely used psychological assessment tool for measuring personality and psychopathology, consisting of a series of true/false statements that assess various personality traits, psychological symptoms, and disorders.

Mirror-image perceptions

The reciprocal views or stereotypes that conflicting parties hold about each other, in which each side sees the other as aggressive, hostile, or unreasonable, while viewing themselves as peaceful, reasonable, and justified.

Paul Costa

A psychologist known for his collaboration with Robert McCrae in developing the Five Factor Model (Big Five) of personality and for his research on personality development and aging.

Personality

An individual's unique pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that persist over time and across different situations, shaping their identity, interactions, and experiences.

Personality inventory

A self-report questionnaire or assessment tool used to measure and assess various personality traits, characteristics, or dimensions, often based on empirical research and psychometric principles.

personality psychology

the branch of psychology that focuses on understanding individual differences in behavior, thoughts, and emotions, as well as the underlying psychological processes that contribute to the development and expression of personality traits.

reciprocal determinism

a key concept in social-cognitive theory proposed by Albert Bandura, suggesting that behavior, personal factors (such as cognition, beliefs), and environmental influences (such as social context, reinforcement) interact and influence each other bidirectionally over time.

Robert McCrae

a psychologist known for his research on personality and the development of the Five Factor Model (Big Five) of personality, which includes five broad dimensions of personality traits - openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

self

a multidimensional construct that encompasses an individual's beliefs, attitudes, values, identity, and self-awareness, representing their subjective experience of themselves as separate and distinct from others.

self-concept

an individual's perception, beliefs, and evaluations about themselves, including their identity, self-worth, abilities, and roles, which shapes their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

self-disclosure

the voluntary sharing of personal information, thoughts, feelings, or experiences with another person, which fosters intimacy and trust in interpersonal relationships.

self-efficacy

the belief in one's own ability to successfully accomplish tasks, achieve goals, or overcome challenges, based on past experiences, skills, and perceived capabilities.

self-esteem

an individual's overall evaluation of their own worth, value, and competence, encompassing feelings of self-respect, self-acceptance, and self-confidence.

Social-cognitive theory

an extension of social learning theory to include the effects of cognitive processes, such as conceptions, judgment, and motivation, on an individual's behavior and on the environment that influences them. Rather than passively absorbing knowledge from environmental inputs, individuals actively influence their learning by interpreting the outcomes of their actions, which then affects their environments and their personal factors, which in turn inform and alter subsequent behavior. Emphasis on this interaction of behavioral, environmental, and personal factors is thus a major hallmark of the theory.

social-cognitive perspective

a psychological approach that emphasizes the interaction between individual characteristics (such as personality traits, cognition) and environmental influences (such as social contexts, learning experiences) in shaping behavior and personality.

trait

a relatively stable and enduring characteristic or pattern of behavior, thought, or emotion that distinguishes one individual from another and influences how they respond to different situations.

Trait theories

approaches that explain personality in terms of internal characteristics that are presumed to determine behavior. Some examples are Allport's personality trait theory, Cattell's personality trait theory, and the five-factor personality model.

achievement motivation

the desire to excel, succeed, or accomplish challenging goals, often driven by the pursuit of competence, mastery, or recognition in specific domains or tasks.

Adventure seeking

This theory states that each individual has their own preferred or acceptable level of risk and that they will take steps to maintain a level state of risk in their environment, and as a result an individual's perception of the severity of risk is the differentiator between high-sensation seekers and low-sensation seekers.

affiliation need

a fundamental human motivation to seek social connections, relationships, and belongingness with others, driven by the desire for companionship, support, and interpersonal bonds.

Kurt Lewin

a German-American psychologist known for his contributions to social psychology, group dynamics, and field theory, emphasizing the importance of environmental factors, group processes, and change management in understanding behavior.

Approach-approach conflicts

a type of conflict in which an individual must choose between two desirable or attractive options, each of which has its own benefits and rewards, making the decision difficult.

Approach-avoidance conflicts

a type of conflict in which an individual is attracted to a goal or outcome (approach) but also experiences negative feelings or consequences associated with pursuing that goal (avoidance), leading to ambivalence and uncertainty.

Avoidance-avoidance conflicts

a type of conflict in which an individual must choose between two undesirable or aversive options, each of which has its own negative consequences, making the decision challenging.

Arousal theory

the theory that the physical environment can affect arousal levels by stimulation and by stress created when psychological or physical needs are not met. Arousal increases when personal space is diminished (see crowding) or when people are subjected to noise, traffic congestion, or other adverse conditions.

basal metabolic rate

the minimum amount of energy or calories required by the body to maintain basic physiological functions (such as respiration, circulation, and cell metabolism) while at rest and in a fasting state.

behavior feedback effect

the phenomenon whereby changes in behavior can influence emotional experience and physiological arousal, suggesting that actions and movements can affect mood and subjective feelings.

Boredom susceptibility

aversion for repetitive experiences of any kind, routine work, or dull and boring people and extreme restlessness under conditions when escape from constancy is impossible.

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of goals, interests, or values between individuals or groups, leading to disagreement, tension, or competition.

Disinhibition

diminution or loss of the normal control exerted by the cerebral cortex, resulting in poorly controlled or poorly restrained emotions or actions. Disinhibition may be due to the effects of alcohol, drugs, or brain injury, particularly to the frontal lobes.

drive-reduction theory

a motivational theory proposing that biological drives, such as hunger or thirst, create a state of tension or arousal (drive) that motivates organisms to engage in behaviors that reduce or satisfy those drives and restore homeostasis.

equity

a sense of fairness, balance, and mutual give-and-take in the distribution of rewards, benefits, and responsibilities between partners.

extrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity or behavior in order to obtain external rewards, incentives, or avoid punishment, rather than for the inherent satisfaction or enjoyment of the activity itself.

Ghrelin

a peptide secreted by endocrine cells in the stomach that binds to growth hormone receptors in the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, stimulating appetite and the release of growth hormone.

glucose

a simple sugar and the primary source of energy for cells in the body, obtained from the digestion of carbohydrates in food and transported through the bloodstream to fuel cellular metabolism.

grit

the perseverance, passion, and resilience demonstrated by individuals in the pursuit of long-term goals or objectives, despite facing obstacles, setbacks, or failures.

homeostasis

the body's tendency to maintain a stable, balanced internal environment despite changes in external conditions, through physiological mechanisms that regulate various bodily processes and functions.

Hypothalamus

part of the diencephalon of the brain, lying ventral to the thalamus, that contains nuclei with primary control of the autonomic (involuntary) functions of the body.

incentive

a stimulus or reward that motivates or encourages behavior, often by offering the possibility of obtaining positive outcomes or avoiding negative consequences.

Incentive theory

the theory that motivation arousal depends on the interaction between environmental incentives (i.e., stimulus objects)—both positive and negative—and an organism's psychological and physiological states (e.g., drive states).

instinct

an innate, fixed pattern of behavior that is characteristic of a species and is often triggered by specific stimuli, serving important adaptive functions such as survival and reproduction.

intrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity or behavior for its own sake, deriving satisfaction, enjoyment, or fulfillment from the activity itself rather than external rewards or incentives.

Leptin

a protein, manufactured and secreted by fat cells, that may communicate to the brain the amount of body fat stored and may help to regulate food intake. Leptin receptors have been found in the hypothalamus, and, when they are stimulated, food intake is reduced.

obesity

a medical condition characterized by excessive accumulation of body fat to the extent that it may have adverse effects on health, well-being, and quality of life, often defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher.

Optimal level of arousal (Yerkes-Dodson Law)

a law stating that the relation between motivation (arousal) and performance can be represented by an inverted U-curve (see inverted-U hypothesis).

physiological need

basic biological requirements for survival and functioning, such as food, water, shelter, and sleep, which must be satisfied to maintain homeostasis and well-being.

Pituitary Gland

a gland, pea-sized in humans, that lies at the base of the brain and is connected by a stalk (the infundibulum) to the hypothalamus. The pituitary's role particularly in secreting tropic hormones, which regulate the production of other hormones, has resulted in its designation as the "master gland of the endocrine system."

polygraph

commonly known as a lie detector, a device used to measure physiological responses (such as heart rate, blood pressure, and skin conductivity) that are believed to be associated with deception or emotional arousal, often used in forensic and security settings.

self-determination theory

a motivational theory emphasizing the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in fostering intrinsic motivation, personal growth, and well-being.

Sensation-seeking theory

the tendency to search out and engage in thrilling activities as a method of increasing stimulation and arousal. It typically takes the form of engaging in highly stimulating activities that have an element of danger, such as skydiving or race-car driving.

set point

a hypothetical physiological level or range (such as body weight or temperature) that the body tries to maintain within a stable equilibrium through regulatory mechanisms and feedback loops.

Thrill seeking

Sensation-seeking, also called thrill-seeking or excitement-seeking, is the tendency to pursue new and different sensations, feelings, and experiences. The trait describes people who chase novel, complex, and intense sensations, who love experience for its own sake, and who may take risks to pursue those experiences.

Yerkes-Dodson law

a principle in psychology stating that there is an optimal level of arousal or stress that enhances performance on a task, with performance declining at both low and high levels of arousal.

Affect

any experience of feeling or emotion, ranging from suffering to elation, from the simplest to the most complex sensations of feeling, and from the most normal to the most pathological emotional reactions.