AP Psych - All Units Vocab

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

psychophysics

the systematic study of sensory capacities by determining behavioral responses to changes in sensory stimuli

introspection

the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes

structuralism

an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

functionalism

an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

psychodynamic perspectives

Sigmund Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and uses that to diagnose and treat psychological disorders

contemporary perspectives

contemporary theoretical viewpoints on human behavior, its scientific study, and the management of its disorders

empirical approach

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

correlational method

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (-1 to +1)

experimental method

a research method in which an investigation manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behaviors and mental processes (dependent variable)

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

social desirability bias

a type of response bias that occurs when survey respondents provide answers according to society's expectations, rather than their own beliefs or experiences

volunteer bias

a research study in which participants choose if they want to be part of the sample

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

placebo

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

single blind experiment

an experiment in which the participants are unaware of the treatment or intervention they are receiving

double blind experiment

an experiment in which both the participant and researcher and unaware of the treatment or intervention being received

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

neuron

a nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system

motor neuron

communicates information from the brain/spinal cord to muscles/glands

sensory neuron

communicates information from sensory organs to brain/spinal cord

interneuron

communicates between neurons

soma

the part of a neuron that contains its nucleus and other standard cell structure

axon

a long, tubular structure in a neuron that transmits action potentials

terminal branches

the branching structure at the ends of axons that release neurotransmitters

dendrites

the multiple thin, treelike fillers that branch off from a neuron's sound and contain receptors to accept incoming signals from other neurons

myelin sheath

a fatty substance that coats and axon, insulating it and enhancing its ability to transmit action potential

gilal cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

all or none principle

signal transmission between neurons is not dependent on the strength of the stimuli, but rather only that the initial threshold is met

reflex arc

the nerve pathway involved in a reflex action, including, at its simplest, a sensory nerve and a motor nerve with a synapse between

neural transmission

when a neuron is activated or fired

depolarization

this occurs when positive ions enter a neuron, making it susceptible to fire an action potential

refractory period

after a neuron has fires an action potential, it passes for a short period to recharge until it will fire again

resting potential

the electrical potential difference between the inside and outside of a neuron

reuptake

re-absorption of neurotransmitters into neurons

threshold

the lowest point at which a particular stimulus will cause a response within an organism

neurotransmitters

a specialized chemical messenger which sends signals between neurons

dopamine

a neurotransmitter involved in mood, movement, attention, and learning

seratonin

a neurotransmitter that regulates sleep, mood, appetite, and body temperature

norepinephrine

a neurotransmitter that is important in controlling alertness, wakefulness, mood, and attention

glutamate

the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system; learning and memory

GABA

the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system

endorphines

pain, control, and pleasure

substance p

the neurotransmitter associated with pain

acetylcholine

a neurotransmitter that enables learning, memory, and triggers muscle contraction

hormones

chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

adrenaline

a hormone that affects the sympathetic nervous system

leptin

signals the hypothalamus that the body has enough fat stored to function normally

ghrelin

hormone produced by the stomach that stimulates appetite

melatonin

a hormone known to regulate sleep and wake cycles

oxytocin

a hormone found in mammals that is associated with bonding, empathy, and trust

antagonists

drugs that mimic particular neurotransmitters by activating its receptors

agonists

drugs that encourage a neural message to send

psychoactive substances

chemical substances that act on the brain to affect emotional or mental states

stimulants

drugs that heighten central nervous system activity and speed up body processes

depressants

drugs that reduce central nervous system activity and speeds up body processes

hallucinogens

drugs that alter sensory perception, producing hallucinations and distortions in sensation

opioids

drugs that reduce pain (technically a reduction of central nervous system energy)

central nervous system

includes the brain and spinal cord and interacts with all processes of the body

peripheral nervous system

the connections the nerves have to the rest of the body. These connections are like the teachers---applying the directives of the principal to their unique body parts

somatic nervous system

carries sensory information from sensory organs to the central nervous system and relays motor commands to muscles; controls voluntary movements

automatic nervous system

regulates involuntary bodily processes, including heart rate, respiration, digestion, and pupil contraction; operates automatically without continuous direction

sympathetic nervous system

mobilizes bodily resources in response to threat by speeding up heart rate and respiration and drawing stored energy from bodily reserves

parasympathetic nervous system

replenishes bodily resources by promoting digestion and slowing down bodily processes

lateralization

a complex process by which differing regions of the brain "take over" the functions of specific behavior and cognitive skills

aphasia

a language disorder caused by damage to parts of the brain that control speech and understanding of language

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, reorganize, and adapt

laceration/concussion

damage to the brain, causing disturbance of the brain function

split brain patients

having the corpus callosum severed to eliminate the connection between the hemispheres of the brain

endocrine system

compromised of a series of glands that produce hormones and functions in regulating all activities in the body

homeostasis

the tendency of the human body to seek balance, equilibrium, and stability

pituitary gland

often thought of as the "master gland"---the hypothalamus tells the pituitary gland to produce hormones that stimulate other glands to produce their own

consciousness

a state of awareness of ourselves and the world around us---thoughts, feelings, sensations, and perceptions

circadian rhythm

a 24 hour long cycle, regulated by the hypothalamus which releases melatonin via the pineal gland at night to make us sleepy

sleep stages

1, 2, 3, 4, REM

sleep stage 1

light sleep, hyponogonic images, and hypnotic jerk (falling sensation)

sleep stage 2

body temperature decreases, heart rate slows. Increase in Theta Waves in K complexes and sleep spindles

sleep stage 3 (and 4)

delta waves appear, deepest stage of sleep, body is at its lowest level of functioning, pituitary glands release growth hormones, and it is difficult to wake

beta waves

very small, very fast waves that are seen when wide awake

alpha waves

slightly larger, slower waves, seen during drowsiness

theta waves

even larger and slower waves seen during sleep

REM

final stage in sleep cycle, referred to as 'paradoxical sleep' because brain waves appear 'awake' but body is paralyzed, dreaming occurs, and the stage increases the longer you sleep

suprachiasmatic nucleus

a bilateral structure located in the anterior part of the hypothalamus. the brain's primary circadian clock, responsible for regulating sleep-wake cycles and other daily rhythms

activation synthesis hypothesis

a neurobiological approach to explain why humans have dreams

consolidation theory

the idea that sleep plays a crucial role in the process of short term memories into long term memories by strengthening neural connections