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Chemical messengers specifically released into blood
Hormones
Targets the same cell that released the messenger
Autocrine
Targets cells adjacent to the releasing cell
Paracrine
Special case of paracrine for neural tissues (neurotransmitters)
Neurocrine
Release hormones into the bloodstream
Endocrine
Releases chemicals through ducts/portals
Exocrine
Releases pheromone chemicals outside the body (integument) to signal other organisms (fear, attraction, etc.)
Pherocrine
Collection of cells, tissues, glands, that release chemical messengers (typically hormones) into the bloodstream
Endocrine system
Name the 3 primary categories of hormones:
Peptide hormones (proteins)
Sometimes split into short-chain (peptide) and long-chain (protein hormones)
Steroid hormones (lipids)
Amine hormones (based largely on tyrosine and tryptophan a.a.)
Have properties of both peptide and steroid hormones
What is the most abundant type of hormone?
Peptide hormones
Peptide hormones include all hormones produced by which structure?
Pituitary gland
Peptides are water-soluble, what property does this mean for them?
They cannot pass through the cell membrane
How do peptide hormones work?
Bind to receptors on cell surface, and activate secondary messengers inside the cell
Name ALL hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland:
• Gonadotropins
• Follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone
(LH)
• Adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ATCH)
• Growth hormone (GH;
somatotropin)
• Prolactin Hormone
(PH)
• Thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH)
Name ALL hormones produced by the posterior pituitary gland:
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin)
Oxytocin
Name ALL hormones produced by the pancreas:
Insulin
Glucagon
What hormone is created early by embryos?
Human chronic gonadotropin (hCG)
Which two structures act as a link between the nervous and endocrine system?
Hypothalamus and pituitary gland
The hypothalamus regulates the HEAL functions of the body. What does HEAL stand for?
Homeostasis
Endocrine
Autonomic
Limbic
What directly stimulates the pituitary gland, and has neural control over other endocrine organs via the autonomic nervous system?
Hypothalamus
The anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) is made from what type of tissue?
Glandular tissue
The posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) is made from what type of tissue?
Nervous tissue
General role of insulin and glucagon:
Regulate blood sugar levels in the body
Within the _____ __ _____, what type of cells produce glucagon?
Within the Islets of Langerhans — alpha cells produce glucagon
Within the _____ __ _____, what type of cells produce insulin?
Within the Islets of Langerhans — beta cells produce insulin
Within the _____ __ _____, what type of cells produce somatostatin (growth hormone-inhibiting hormone, GHIH)?
Within the Islets of Langerhans — delta cells produce somatostatin
Raises blood glucose by increased glycogen breakdown:
Glucagon
Lowers blood glucose by increased glucose uptake and use by tissue:
Insulin
Reduces secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary
Growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
What does GIP stand for?
Gastric inhibitory peptide
What does CCK stand for, and what is the role of this hormone?
Cholecystokinin — stimulates digestion
What substances are steroid hormones derived from?
Cholesterol
What property of steroid hormones make them easily passable through cell membranes?
Lipid-soluble
Where do steroid hormones bind to receptors?
Within the cytoplasm or nucleus
Where are most steroid hormones synthesized?
In the adrenal cortex
Name ALL hormones produced by the adrenal cortex:
Aldosterone
Cortisol
Androgens
Name ALL hormones produced by gonads (ovaries and testes):
Testosterone
Estrogen
Progesterone
Regulates sodium and potassium
Aldosterone
Regulates metabolism and stress response
A glucocorticoid regulating blood sugar
Cortisol
Regulates and triggers development of male physical characteristics
Testosterone is the most common form
Androgens
Regulates male reproductive functions
Testosterone
Regulates female reproductive functions
Estrogen
Involved in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and embryogenesis
Progesterone
Where is the adrenal gland located?
Sits on top of the kidney
Name the two parts of the adrenal gland:
Cortex (exterior)
Medulla (interior)
What is the adrenal encased within?
Perirenal fat capsule
What separates the adrenal gland from the kidney?
Renal fascia
What vascularizes the adrenal gland?
Superior, middle, and inferior suprarenal (adrenal) arteries
What stimulates the adrenal cortex, and where does this hormone come from?
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which comes from the anterior pituitary
If any hormone ends in “tropic”, what does this mean?
Means it activates another hormone
Name the 3 layers of the adrenal cortex (from most exterior to interior) and the hormones each layer produces:
Glomerulosa — aldosterone
Fasciculata — cortisol
Reticularis — androgens
Produces sex hormones (which are steroids), but are stimulated by peptides from the pituitary gland
Gonads
Triggers ovulation in females, stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Stimulates follicles to prepare eggs for ovulation (which thereby releases estrogen and progesterone) in females, and stimulates sperm production in males
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Mainly derived from tyrosine and tryptophan amino acids
Amine hormones
What are the most important subgroups of amine hormones?
Catecholamines
Name the hormone produced by the pineal gland:
Melatonin
Name the hormone produced by the thyroid:
Thyroid hormone
Name the hormones produced by the adrenal medulla:
Catecholamines
Adrenaline (epinephrine)
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
Dopamine
Plays key role in body fight-or-flight responses, increase heart rate, blood pressure and energy levels
Catecholamines
What is the other primary gland near the brain stem?
Pineal gland
Regulates circadian rhythm, plays key role in sleep/awake cycles
Melatonin
Controls much of your body’s metabolism
Thyroid hormone
Active form of thyroid hormone:
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Inactive form of thyroid hormone:
Thyroxine (T4)
Inner portion of adrenal gland
Adrenal medulla
Uniquely integrated with the sympathetic nervous system, acting as a “post-ganglionic” neuron
Adrenal medulla
Triggers fight-or-flight response
Adrenaline (epinephrine)
Helps regulate stress response
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
What is the 2-neuron chain in the autonomic nervous system?
Pre-ganglionic neuron
Post-ganglioinIc neuron
Target organ/tissue/etc.
Adrenal medulla is only a _-_____ innervation from the _____ _____
1-chain, thoracolumbar nerves
What is the body’s largest endocrine gland?
Thyroid
What does the thyroid gland surround, and what is just inferior to?
Surrounds trachea, and is just inferior to the thyroid cartilage
Name the 3 lobes of the thyroid gland:
Right lobe, left lobe, and pyramidal gland
Where is one of the only places the body metabolizes iodine?
Thyroid gland
Small ovoid glands external to the thyroid capsule (both superior and inferior)
Parathyroid glands
Responsible for growth, lactation, smooth muscle action, etc.
Mainly responsible for helping regulate calcium level in the body
Parathyroid hormone
A tumor in the posterior pituitary gland would most likely have which of the
following symptoms?
Increased urine output
Attempt to determine a user’s intent by analyzing and classifying patterns of brain activity
Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs)
Typical BCIs uses electric activity of the brain, but what other methods have also been explored?
Oxygen changes
When were electroencephalograms (EEGs) discovered, and by who?
1929, by Hans Berger
Name the 4 key parts to a BCI:
Specific brain activity/pattern
Signal acquisition
Signal processing and classification
Control signal and feedback (output)
How are BCIs controlled?
By a user performing some mental activity to produce a repeatable, identifiable neurophysiological pattern
For example, in a BCI, what kind of rhythms does imagined movement create?
Sensorimotor rhythms
What kind of methods are used to measure brain activity?
Electroencephalography (EEG) or electrocorticography (ECoG)
Typical frequency range of brain activity samples:
128 Hz to 30kHz
Name 3 things that processing signals aims to accomplish:
Remove artifacts
Identify target patterns
Extract features of interest
Term for well-understood neurophysiological responses:
Features
Name some common artifacts in brain signals:
Blinking, head movements, breathing, and instrumentation noise
What is it called when some classification steps require clear, labelled examples of the neurophysiological features of interest?
Supervised learning
In order to execute a certain command or drive a specific application and provide feedback, what is sent?
Control signal
What is the role of EPSP in synaptic transmission?
Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential which is caused by excitatory neurons — brings membrane potential closer to threshold which promotes action potential
What is the role of IPSP in synaptic transmission?
Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential which is caused by inhibitory neurons — hyperpolarizes the membrane, inhibiting action potential
Measures synaptic potentials pooled across groups of neurons near a recording electrode
Local field potentials (LFPs)
Other names for local field potentials (LFPs)
Micro- or intracranial EEG
What is a result of the way the cortex is set up?
A dipole with the pyramidal neurons orientation (makes it easily measurable)
Electroencephalography (EEG) has great _____ resolution but bad _____ resolution.
Temporal, spatial
Explain the 10-20 system used for placing electrodes on the scalp during EEGs:
Electrodes for EEG are placed along the head from the nasion (bridge of nose) to the inion (bump at back of skull) at 10% and 20% intervals of the total distance. This standard spacing ensures consistent and accurate brain activity measurement.
Records electric activity with sensors placed on the exposed surface of the cortex
Electrocorticography (ECoG)
Removal of whole section of skull to place ECoG or other implant (or to relieve subdural hematoma)
Craniotomy