BMEN 309 - Final Exam (Post-Midterm 2)

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527 Terms

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Chemical messengers specifically released into blood

Hormones

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Targets the same cell that released the messenger

Autocrine

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Targets cells adjacent to the releasing cell

Paracrine

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Special case of paracrine for neural tissues (neurotransmitters)

Neurocrine

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Release hormones into the bloodstream

Endocrine

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Releases chemicals through ducts/portals

Exocrine

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Releases pheromone chemicals outside the body (integument) to signal other organisms (fear, attraction, etc.)

Pherocrine

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Collection of cells, tissues, glands, that release chemical messengers (typically hormones) into the bloodstream

Endocrine system

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Name the 3 primary categories of hormones:

  1. Peptide hormones (proteins)

    • Sometimes split into short-chain (peptide) and long-chain (protein hormones)

  2. Steroid hormones (lipids)

  3. Amine hormones (based largely on tyrosine and tryptophan a.a.)

    • Have properties of both peptide and steroid hormones

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What is the most abundant type of hormone?

Peptide hormones

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Peptide hormones include all hormones produced by which structure?

Pituitary gland

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Peptides are water-soluble, what property does this mean for them?

They cannot pass through the cell membrane

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How do peptide hormones work?

Bind to receptors on cell surface, and activate secondary messengers inside the cell

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Name ALL hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland:

• Gonadotropins
• Follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone
(LH)
• Adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ATCH)
• Growth hormone (GH;
somatotropin)
• Prolactin Hormone
(PH)
• Thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH)

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Name ALL hormones produced by the posterior pituitary gland:

  • Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin)

  • Oxytocin

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Name ALL hormones produced by the pancreas:

  • Insulin

  • Glucagon

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What hormone is created early by embryos?

Human chronic gonadotropin (hCG)

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Which two structures act as a link between the nervous and endocrine system?

Hypothalamus and pituitary gland

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The hypothalamus regulates the HEAL functions of the body. What does HEAL stand for?

Homeostasis

Endocrine

Autonomic

Limbic

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What directly stimulates the pituitary gland, and has neural control over other endocrine organs via the autonomic nervous system?

Hypothalamus

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The anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) is made from what type of tissue?

Glandular tissue

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The posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) is made from what type of tissue?

Nervous tissue

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General role of insulin and glucagon:

Regulate blood sugar levels in the body

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Within the _____ __ _____, what type of cells produce glucagon?

Within the Islets of Langerhans — alpha cells produce glucagon

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Within the _____ __ _____, what type of cells produce insulin?

Within the Islets of Langerhans — beta cells produce insulin

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Within the _____ __ _____, what type of cells produce somatostatin (growth hormone-inhibiting hormone, GHIH)?

Within the Islets of Langerhans — delta cells produce somatostatin

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Raises blood glucose by increased glycogen breakdown:

Glucagon

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Lowers blood glucose by increased glucose uptake and use by tissue:

Insulin

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Reduces secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary

Growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH)

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What does GIP stand for?

Gastric inhibitory peptide

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What does CCK stand for, and what is the role of this hormone?

Cholecystokinin — stimulates digestion

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What substances are steroid hormones derived from?

Cholesterol

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What property of steroid hormones make them easily passable through cell membranes?

Lipid-soluble

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Where do steroid hormones bind to receptors?

Within the cytoplasm or nucleus

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Where are most steroid hormones synthesized?

In the adrenal cortex

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Name ALL hormones produced by the adrenal cortex:

  • Aldosterone

  • Cortisol

  • Androgens

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Name ALL hormones produced by gonads (ovaries and testes):

  • Testosterone

  • Estrogen

  • Progesterone

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Regulates sodium and potassium

Aldosterone

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Regulates metabolism and stress response

A glucocorticoid regulating blood sugar

Cortisol

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Regulates and triggers development of male physical characteristics

Testosterone is the most common form

Androgens

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Regulates male reproductive functions

Testosterone

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Regulates female reproductive functions

Estrogen

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Involved in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and embryogenesis

Progesterone

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Where is the adrenal gland located?

Sits on top of the kidney

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Name the two parts of the adrenal gland:

Cortex (exterior)

Medulla (interior)

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What is the adrenal encased within?

Perirenal fat capsule

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What separates the adrenal gland from the kidney?

Renal fascia

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What vascularizes the adrenal gland?

Superior, middle, and inferior suprarenal (adrenal) arteries

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What stimulates the adrenal cortex, and where does this hormone come from?

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which comes from the anterior pituitary

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If any hormone ends in “tropic”, what does this mean?

Means it activates another hormone

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Name the 3 layers of the adrenal cortex (from most exterior to interior) and the hormones each layer produces:

  1. Glomerulosa — aldosterone

  2. Fasciculata — cortisol

  3. Reticularis — androgens

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Produces sex hormones (which are steroids), but are stimulated by peptides from the pituitary gland

Gonads

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Triggers ovulation in females, stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

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Stimulates follicles to prepare eggs for ovulation (which thereby releases estrogen and progesterone) in females, and stimulates sperm production in males

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

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Mainly derived from tyrosine and tryptophan amino acids

Amine hormones

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What are the most important subgroups of amine hormones?

Catecholamines

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Name the hormone produced by the pineal gland:

Melatonin

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Name the hormone produced by the thyroid:

Thyroid hormone

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Name the hormones produced by the adrenal medulla:

Catecholamines

  • Adrenaline (epinephrine)

  • Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)

  • Dopamine

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Plays key role in body fight-or-flight responses, increase heart rate, blood pressure and energy levels

Catecholamines

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What is the other primary gland near the brain stem?

Pineal gland

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Regulates circadian rhythm, plays key role in sleep/awake cycles

Melatonin

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Controls much of your body’s metabolism

Thyroid hormone

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Active form of thyroid hormone:

Triiodothyronine (T3)

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Inactive form of thyroid hormone:

Thyroxine (T4)

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Inner portion of adrenal gland

Adrenal medulla

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Uniquely integrated with the sympathetic nervous system, acting as a “post-ganglionic” neuron

Adrenal medulla

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Triggers fight-or-flight response

Adrenaline (epinephrine)

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Helps regulate stress response

Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)

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What is the 2-neuron chain in the autonomic nervous system?

  1. Pre-ganglionic neuron

  2. Post-ganglioinIc neuron

  • Target organ/tissue/etc.

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Adrenal medulla is only a _-_____ innervation from the _____ _____

1-chain, thoracolumbar nerves

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What is the body’s largest endocrine gland?

Thyroid

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What does the thyroid gland surround, and what is just inferior to?

Surrounds trachea, and is just inferior to the thyroid cartilage

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Name the 3 lobes of the thyroid gland:

Right lobe, left lobe, and pyramidal gland

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Where is one of the only places the body metabolizes iodine?

Thyroid gland

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Small ovoid glands external to the thyroid capsule (both superior and inferior)

Parathyroid glands

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Responsible for growth, lactation, smooth muscle action, etc.

Mainly responsible for helping regulate calcium level in the body

Parathyroid hormone

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A tumor in the posterior pituitary gland would most likely have which of the
following symptoms?

Increased urine output

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Attempt to determine a user’s intent by analyzing and classifying patterns of brain activity

Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs)

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Typical BCIs uses electric activity of the brain, but what other methods have also been explored?

Oxygen changes

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When were electroencephalograms (EEGs) discovered, and by who?

1929, by Hans Berger

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Name the 4 key parts to a BCI:

  1. Specific brain activity/pattern

  2. Signal acquisition

  3. Signal processing and classification

  4. Control signal and feedback (output)

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How are BCIs controlled?

By a user performing some mental activity to produce a repeatable, identifiable neurophysiological pattern

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For example, in a BCI, what kind of rhythms does imagined movement create?

Sensorimotor rhythms

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What kind of methods are used to measure brain activity?

Electroencephalography (EEG) or electrocorticography (ECoG)

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Typical frequency range of brain activity samples:

128 Hz to 30kHz

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Name 3 things that processing signals aims to accomplish:

  1. Remove artifacts

  2. Identify target patterns

  3. Extract features of interest

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Term for well-understood neurophysiological responses:

Features

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Name some common artifacts in brain signals:

Blinking, head movements, breathing, and instrumentation noise

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What is it called when some classification steps require clear, labelled examples of the neurophysiological features of interest?

Supervised learning

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In order to execute a certain command or drive a specific application and provide feedback, what is sent?

Control signal

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What is the role of EPSP in synaptic transmission?

Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential which is caused by excitatory neurons — brings membrane potential closer to threshold which promotes action potential

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What is the role of IPSP in synaptic transmission?

Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential which is caused by inhibitory neurons — hyperpolarizes the membrane, inhibiting action potential

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Measures synaptic potentials pooled across groups of neurons near a recording electrode

Local field potentials (LFPs)

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Other names for local field potentials (LFPs)

Micro- or intracranial EEG

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What is a result of the way the cortex is set up?

A dipole with the pyramidal neurons orientation (makes it easily measurable)

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Electroencephalography (EEG) has great _____ resolution but bad _____ resolution.

Temporal, spatial

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Explain the 10-20 system used for placing electrodes on the scalp during EEGs:

Electrodes for EEG are placed along the head from the nasion (bridge of nose) to the inion (bump at back of skull) at 10% and 20% intervals of the total distance. This standard spacing ensures consistent and accurate brain activity measurement.

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Records electric activity with sensors placed on the exposed surface of the cortex

Electrocorticography (ECoG)

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Removal of whole section of skull to place ECoG or other implant (or to relieve subdural hematoma)

Craniotomy