Ronald Reagan → likable and sensible + won rep nomination
Campaign for President → Reagan attacked Dems for expanding gov and undermining US prestige
Reagan won 51% of the popular vote and almost 91% of the electoral votes
Significance → Reagan broke up the New Deal coalition by taking mo50% of blue-collar votes
The election ended a half-century of Democratic dominance of Congress

The Reagan Revolution

Reaganomics
- Supply-side economics: tax cuts and reduced gov spending would increase investment by the private sector
- Reaganomics → contrasted with Keynesian
Federal Tax Cut
- Economic Recovery Tax Act (1981): included a 25% decrease in personal income taxes
Spending
- With the help of conservative Dems, Reps cut more than $40 billion from domestic programs
Deregulation
- Reduced federal regulations on business and industry
- Restrictions were eased on savings and loan institutions, mergers, and takeovers + auto safety loosened
Labor Unions
- Reagan was against unions + fired many for violating contracts and decertified the PACTO union
- Decrease in union membership → loss of manufacturing jobs
Recession and Recovery
- 1982 → nation suffered a big recession + bank failures
- Recovery widened the economic gap
Privatization
- Replacing government jobs with private business (air strike)

Social Issues

Election of 1984
- Reagan and VP George Bush were renominated by the Rep party
- Walter Mondale and Geraldine Ferraro → first female VP candidate of a major party + won the nomination of Dems
- Reagan won with 59% of the popular vote and 525 of the 538 electoral votes
- Reagan's policies → boosted the economy and made him a popular president
Budget and Trade Deficits
- Reagan’s tax cuts + increased military spending + larger fed deficits
- The US became a debtor nation
- Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Balanced Budget Act → across the board spending cuts
Impact of President Reagan
- His conservative policies included tax cuts, reduced government spending, and deregulation,→ lasting impact on the economy and business environment.
- Reagan is also known for his strong anti-communist stance, which played a role at the end of the Cold War.
- Criticized for its handling of the Iran-Contra affair, in which senior officials secretly facilitated the sale of arms to Iran and used the proceeds to fund anti-communist rebels in Nicaragua.

Foreign Policy During the Reagan Years

Renewing the Cold War

Military Buildup
- Reagan’s administration spent billions to make weapons to expand the US navy
- Increased spending on Strategic Defense Initiative → Plan to build a high-tech system to destroy enemy missiles before they could reach US territory
- $171 billion → $300 billion
Central America
- Reagan supported right-wing dictators to keep out communism
- The Marxist movement (Sandinistas) had overthrown the country’s dictator
- The US provided military aid to the contras to dislodge Sandinistas
- Dems opposed and passed the Boland Amendment → prohibited further aid to contras
- Reagan administration spent $5 billion to support Salvadorn gov against a coalition of leftist guerrillas
Grenada
- The coup led to est. of pro-Cuban regime
- Reagan ordered marines to invade the island to prevent communist bases in the US
- Succeeded in re-est. Pro-US gov
Iran-Contra Affair
- Iran and Iraq had been engaged in a bloody war
- Stuff had the idea to use profits of the arms deal with Iran to fund contras in Nicaragua
- Reagan denied knowing diversion funds → drop in popularity votes

Lebanon, Isreal, and PLO

Isreal invaded Lebanon to stop PLO terrorists from raiding Isreal
The US sent peacekeeping forces into Lebanon to contain the country’s civil war
Arab suicide squad bombed the US embassy in Beirut + another terrorist drove a bomb truck into US Marines barracks
Reagan pulled forces out of Lebanon
Geroge Schultz pushed for a peaceful settlement of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict

Improved US-Soviet Relations

The cold war intensified as a result of arms buildups + soviet deployment of missiles against NATO
Mikhail Gorbachev became the new Soviet leader + made reforms
Glasnost (openness) → end political repression + more political freedom
Perestroika (resurrecting) → free-market practices
“Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall” (Berlin Wall)
Gorbachev + Reagan agreed to remove + destroy intermediate-range missiles (INF agreement)

Assessing Reagan’s Policy

Reagan administration argued military buildup forced the Soviet Union to concede defeat and abandon Cold War
Others concluded that Gorbachev needed to reform the community economy
Others believed George Kenan’s containment policies helped

The Collapse of Soviet Communism and the Soviet Union

Tiananmen Square → Pro-democracy students demonstrated for freedom in Beijing but the communist government crushed the protest
Eastern Europe → declared that he would no longer support Communist governments of Eastern Europe with Soviet Armed Forces
East German protesters tore down Berlin Wall
Break Up of the Soviet Union → Nationalist desire for self-doubt termination overwhelmed Gorbachev and the Soviet Union +Failed group against Gorbachev dissolved the Soviet Union
Soviets came with the loose Confederation of the Commonwealth of independent states
Yeltsin disbanded the party
End of Cold War → Agreements to dismantle nuclear weapons tangible proof ended the Cold War
START I and START II → reduced nuclear warheads and weapons + offered US economic assistance to the Russian economy
Yugoslavia + Bosnia and Herzegovina in chaos
The end of the Cold War raised questions about whether the US needed heavy defense spending

Invasion of Panama

US troops were sent to remove the General to stop Noriega from using the drug pipeline to the US

Persian Gulf War

Saddam Hussein ( Iraq's dictator) invaded oil Rich Kuwait
President Bush built a Coalition of United Nations members to pressure Husain to withdraw from Kuwait
un embargo against Iraq had no effect
Bush won Congressional approval for a military campaign to roll back Iraq's aggression
Operation Desert Storm: military operative sent to Iraq
After 100 hours of fighting Iraq conceded defeat

Domestic Problems

Clarence Thomas: to replace Thurgood Marshall became controversial as sexual harassment issue angered African Americans and women
Taxes and the Economy
- Week Savings and Loan institutions to pay insurance depositors for funds lost in s&l's would cost taxpayers more than $250 billion
- Republicans fall betrayed when Bush violated no new taxes
- Recession in 1990 and did the Regan era of prosperity, increased unemployment, and decreased average family income
Political Inertia
- Americans with Disabilities Act (1990): prohibited discrimination against citizens with physical and mental disabilities
- Emphasized Cuts in federal programs

The Clinton Years: Prosperity and Partisanship

Anti-Incubant Mood

A stagnant economy, huge budget deficits, political Deadlock fueled to solutions meant with government
US Term Limits Inc. v. Thorton: States could not limit the tenure of federal lawmakers without a Constitutional Amendment
27th Amendment: prohibited members of Congress from raising their own salaries

The Election of 1992

In 1992, George H.W. Bush ran for re-election against Democratic Bill Clinton and Independent candidate Ross Perot.
H. Ross Perot → Texas billion as an independent + appealed to millions with anti-Washinton, anti-deficit views
Despite his high approval ratings following the Gulf War, Bush faced criticism for his handling of domestic issues, including the economy and rising unemployment.
Clinton won with 43% of the popular vote and 370 electoral votes

Clinton’s First Term (1993-1997)

Early Accomplishments
- Family and Medical Leave Act + “motor-voter” law
- Brady Handgun Bill → mandated a 5-day waiting period for the purchase of handguns
- Anti-Crime Bill → provided $30 billion in funding for more police protection + crime prevention
- National Rifle Association
- NAFTA → free trade zone between Canada and Mexico

Republicans Take over Congress

Zealous Reformers → Newt Gingrich, Speaker of the House, led Reps in an attack on fed programs + spending “contract with America”
Resulted in 2 shutdowns of fed gov + Oklahoma City bombing
Balanced Budget → Congress and President compromised on a budget that left Medicare and Social Security benefits intact
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act: set curves on immigrants, increased minimum wage, and balance the budget
Record and the economy helped eliminate the deficit in federal spending plus created Federal Surplus plus created 10 million new jobs

The Election of 1996

President Bill Clinton won a second term in office, defeating Republican nominee Bob Dole
largely fought over domestic issues, such as the economy and healthcare
Clinton won the popular vote with 49.2% and secured 379 electoral votes.

Technology Boom

The advent of the internet, communication became faster and more efficient, while personal computing made it easier for people to access information and perform tasks
Rise of many tech companies such as Microsoft, Apple, and Amazon
Development of new technologies and software paved the way for the digital revolution

Clinton’s Second Term: Politics of Impeachment

Investigations and Impeachment
- Associates of Clinton under investigation appointed independent prosecutors
- Dems viewed investigations as right-wing conspiracy
- Clinton wasn’t charged with any illegalities in Whitewater real estate deal+ firing
- Kenneth Starr charged Clinton during his deposition in a civil suit about alleged sexual harassment while gov of AK lied about relations with a young woman
Impeachment
- House voted to impeach the president on counts of perjury and obstruction of justice
- The popular opinion did not support rep impeachment
- Allowed Congress to est. independent prosecutor’s office to lapse

Foreign Policy in the Clinton Administration

Peacekeeping
- US soldiers in humanitarian missions came in the Somalian civil war + Haiti
- Played a key diplomatic role in a negotiated end to British rule in Northern Irelan
Europe
- UE became the unified market of 15 nations
- Boris Yeltsin struggled to reform its economy and fight rampant corruption
- Serbian dictator carried out a series of armed conflicts to suppress independence movements in Yugolace provinces
Asia
- Nuclear proliferation becoming a concern (North Korea, India, Pakistan)
- Diplomatic ties with Vietnam
- Trade agreements with China despite protests from human rights activists
Middle East
- Saddam Husien defiance of UN weapons instructors → Airstrikes
- Anti-American sentiment in the Islamic world
Globalization
- World Trade Org (WTO): oversaw trade agreements, trade rules, disputes
- International Monetary Fund (IMF) + World Bank: made loans + supervised economic policies of poorer nations with debt
- The growing gap between rich and poor

American Society in 2000

Immigration
- Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986) → fair entry process for immigrants but failed to stop illegal entry through Mexico
Aging and the Family
- More ethnically diverse + increased life expectancy
- A growing number of single-parent families
Income and Wealth
- Americans were achieving the American dream
- Homeownership continued to climb
- The economy continues to generate more and more wealth
- Income tax for the lowest declined
- High school graduates earned half the income of college graduates
- The US was the richest country in the world among industrialized nations
- The largest gap between lowest and highest paid workers and the greatest concentration of wealth among top-earning households

Challenges of the 21st Century

Political Polarization

Anti-gov rural and many suburban areas went Rep
Diverse large urban centers voted Democrat
The shift of southern white conservatives from dem Rep Party transformed American politics
Both parties gerrymandered congressional districts to create safe seats → regarded partisanship and discouraged compromise

Disputed Election of 2000

George W. Bush and Al Gore were so close that it had to be decided by the Supreme Court
Bush v. Gore: outcome of the Election in Favor of Bush
The court's majority opinion argued that the Florida Supreme Court's method of manual vote recounting was unconstitutional, as it violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Others argued that the court's intervention in the election was unwarranted and could have far-reaching consequences for future elections.
Significant and debated cases in the history of the Supreme Court

Domestic Policies of the George W. Bush Administration

Republican Tax Cuts → lowered top tax bracket, gradually eliminated estate taxes, increased child tax credit and IRA + 401(k) limits + gave all taxpayers immediate tax rebates
Educational and Health Reform
- No Child Left Behind Act → pushed schools to give struggling students more attention, support, and help
- Congress fulfilled prescription drug coverage for seniors
Economic Bubbles and Corruption
- The technology boom peaked in the 2000s
- The stock market crashed + the unemployment rate claimed + people living in poverty increased
- Federal Reserve fought the recession by cutting interest rates
- End of tech boom → Investors moved their money into real estate (bubble)

The War on Terrorism

Early Terrorist Attacks
- Truck bombing of WTC
- Osama Bin Laden allied himself with the Taliban
September 11, 2001
- Terrorists hijacked four commercial airplanes and flew them into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, and a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania
- The attacks killed nearly 3,000 people and injured thousands more
- The event had a profound impact on American society and foreign policy, leading to the War on Terrorism and changes in national security measures.
War in Afghanistan
- Bush declared that he wanted Osama bin Laden and other Al-Qaeda leaders “dead or alive”
- Taliban refused to turn him over
Home Land Security
- USA PATRIOT ACT (2001): expanded the gov’s surveillance powers, allowing for increased monitoring of communication and financial transactions in an effort to prevent future terrorist attacks
- Some argue that it infringes on civil liberties and others argue that it is necessary for national security.
- Department of Homeland Security
- Director of National Intelligence → Coordinating the intelligence activities of all agencies
George W. Bush Foreign Policy
- Bush refused to join Kyoto Accords to prevent global warming
- Did the administration value cooperation with nations or follow a unilateralist approach?
- Bush claimed that the US would be justified in using a pre-emptive attack to stop the acquisition and use of weapons of mass destruction by terrorists and by nations that support it
Iraq War
- Began in 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a coalition of primarily Western countries led by the United States
- The war was launched in response to the September 11 attacks and the belief that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs)
- Despite numerous international protests and a lack of evidence supporting the WMD claim, the invasion went ahead.
Operation Iraqi Freedom
- Aimed to remove Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein from power and eliminate Iraq's alleged weapons of mass destruction (WMDs)
- Although Hussein was eventually captured and executed and Iraq's government was overthrown, the WMDs were never found

Elections of 2004 and a Bush Second Term

Elections of 2004
- George W. Bush won re-election over Democratic nominee John Kerry
- The election was held in the midst of the War on Terrorism and the ongoing conflict in Iraq
- Bush campaigned on a platform of national security and the need for continued military action in the Middle East
- Kerry criticized Bush's handling of the war and emphasized domestic issues such as healthcare and education
Four More Years at War
- Reconstruction of Iraq made some headway when Iraq had its first election → National assembly, prime minister + cabinet members
- In US bipartisan Iraqi study group recommended steps to have Iraqis take greater responsibility
- In Afghanistan, the Taliban stepped up their attacks
Washington Politics
- Bush pushed Congress to privatize social security by encouraging Americans to invest part of their Social Security payroll deduction in market investments
- PEMA failed to anticipate and respond to Hurricane Katrina
- Scandals tarnished Reps
- Failures helped Dems win control of both houses in 2006
- Bush left a lasting impact on courts by appointing conservatives
The Great Recession
- Characterized by a housing market bubble, the subprime mortgage crisis, and the collapse of several large financial institutions
- Resulted in high unemployment rates, a significant decline in home values, and a decline in consumer spending
- The government responded with a series of measures designed to stimulate the economy, including bailouts of major financial institutions, tax cuts, and increased government spending.
- The recession officially ended in 2009, but its effects continued to be felt for years afterward.
- TARP: provided $700 billion to troubled banks to bail out banks that were perceived "too big to fail" to prevent financial collapse

Election of 2008

Marked the first time an African American was elected President of the United States.
Barack Obama, a Democrat, defeated Republican nominee John McCain in a landslide victory.
Obama campaigned on a platform of hope and change, promising to address issues such as healthcare reform, climate change, and income inequality.
His victory was seen as a rejection of the policies of the Bush administration and a call for a new direction in American politics.

The First Obama Administration, 2009 -2013

The Transition
- Growing economic crisis dominated the transition
Presidential Initiatives
- Obama signed a number of executive orders to overturn the actions of the Bush administration
- Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act: strengthen protection of equal pay for female employees
- Obama failed to carry out all his campaign pledges
Economic Stimulus
- American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009: unprecedented action to stimulate the economy + measures to modernize our nation's energy and communication infrastructure and enhance energy independence
- General Motors + Chrysler Corp near collapse → Recovery of domestic auto
- Consumer Protection Act: improved bank regulations of banking and investment firms + protect taxpayers from future bailouts of businesses
- Bureau of Consumer Protection: regulate consumer products
Health Care
- Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act: extended affordable help care insurance to additional Americans
Budget Deficits
- Recession lowered federal tax income and increased government spending
- Medicare and Social Security costs add to future deficits
- Bowles-Simpson Plan: would have eliminated the deficit by 2035
- Rejected by Democrats for its cut to social services and Reps for tax increases
The Tea Party and 2010 Mid-Term Elections
- Emerged in 2009 in response to growing concerns over government spending, taxes, and the national debt
- The movement was largely made up of conservative Republicans and libertarians who sought to limit the size and scope of government
- In the 2010 midterm elections, the Tea Party helped Republicans win control of the House of Representatives and gain seats in the Senate
- However, the movement's influence began to wane in subsequent years as it became associated with more extreme and controversial views
Congress in Gridlock
- Partisan political climate + gov in chaos
- Do-nothing congress passed more legislation
- Super-committee failed + spending cuts seemed likely

Obama’s Foreign Policy

Iraq
- Pres developed a plan to wind down US ground combat operations in Iraq
- Forces withdrawn
- Sunni + Al-Qaeda continued to terrorize the majority Shiite gob
Death of Osama bin Laden
- Killed in Pakistan in an operation of CIA + Navy SEALS
- Raised the question of whether the US needed to stay in are or not
Arab Spring
- Series of protests, uprisings, and revolutions that spread across the Middle East and North Africa in the early 2010s.
- Sparked by the self-immolation of a Tunisian street vendor in December 2010
- The movement quickly spread to other countries, including Egypt, Libya, Syria, and Yemen
- The protests were largely driven by discontent with authoritarian regimes, corruption, economic hardship, and lack of political freedoms
- Led to the overthrow of several governments and sparked ongoing conflicts in Syria and elsewhere
Asia and Europe
- Middle East limited pres pivot to Asia
- Budget gridlock provided China with more opportunities to project growing power
- EU continued to struggle for not being Bush

Election of 2012

Barack Obama was re-elected to a second term as president, defeating Republican nominee Mitt Romney
The election was held in the midst of ongoing economic struggles and the continued conflict in the Middle East
Obama campaigned on a platform of continued progress and change, while Romney emphasized his business experience and criticized Obama's handling of the economy.

Election of 2014

Republicans won control of the Senate in the 2014 midterm elections
The election was characterized by a low voter turnout and widespread dissatisfaction with both major political parties
The new Republican majority in the Senate promised to challenge Obama's legislative agenda and push for conservative reforms in a number of policy areas.

Second Obama Administration

Partisan Budget Conflicts
- The budget impasse between Democrats and Republicans resulted in a government shutdown, with many federal workers being furloughed for several weeks
- The conflict centered around disagreements over federal spending levels, and both sides were criticized for their unwillingness to compromise
- This led to a series of automatic spending cuts known as sequestration, which further strained government programs and services.
Gun violence
- Mass shootings sparked debates about guns
- Proposals to tighter gun laws + background checks
Terrorism
- Homegrown terrorism sparked in **Boston Marathon (**2 brothers motivated by Islamic beliefs)
- Efforts to prevent terrorism classes with civil liberties + human rights
Foreign Policy
- Sectarian division between Sunni + Shiite Muslims worsens
- OSS moved to re-est. worldwide caliphate under strict Islamic law
- Iran
- Election of a new leader provided an opportunity to start negotiations over the nuclear energy program
- Europe
- Russia + NATO + Ukraine tensions worsened
- China
- Wanted more territories + treated southeast-asian nations
- Emerged as a serious threat in the 21st century

Contemporary Issues and the Roberts Court

Affirmative Actions and Voting Rights
- Affirmative action: increase the representation of historically disadvantaged groups in areas such as employment, education, and politics.
- The practice has been controversial, with some arguing that it unfairly advantages certain groups and others arguing that it is necessary to address past and ongoing discrimination.
- Shelby County v. Holder → required that certain states with a history of voter discrimination obtain prior federal approval of voting changes
Elections and Money
- Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission: ruled that the First Amendment prohibits the government from restricting independent political expenditures by corporations and unions
Environment
- Used stimulus bill to promote reduced reliance on oil + alternative energy
- EPA: had authority under Clean Air Act to regulate carbon dioxide + other greenhouse gases
Gay Rights
- Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell
- Defense of Marriage Act → unconstitutional
- Same-sex couples have a fundamental right to marry under the 14th Amendment
Gun Rights
- District of Columbia v. Heller → 2nd amendment protects the right to possess firearms
Immigration
- Chamber of Commerce v. Whiting: the state had the right to require employers to check the immigration status of potential employees
- Arizona v. US: federal immigration law pre-empts most states’ anti-immigration law
Healthcare
- The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act → Critics argue that it represented government overreach and would lead to higher healthcare costs.
- Court upheld the constitutionality of the law's individual mandate, which requires Americans to have health insurance or pay a penalty.
- King v. Burwell: healthcare could be used in states that did not have their own health insurance exchanges
- Despite these legal challenges, the law remains in effect today, although it has been modified and scaled back by subsequent administrations.

The Trump Presidency and the Election of Biden

Donald Trump ran as the Republican nominee, defeating a crowded field of more traditional politicians.
Trump campaigned "Make America Great Again," promising to bring back jobs, renegotiate trade deals, and crack down on illegal immigration.
Hillary Clinton ran as the Democratic nominee, becoming the first woman to be nominated for president by a major political party.
Clinton campaigned on experience and continuity, promising to build on the legacy of the Obama administration and promote progressive policies such as universal healthcare and equal pay for women.
Characterized by controversy and scandal, with Trump facing allegations of sexual assault and Clinton facing criticism over her handling of classified information as Secretary of State.
Trump won the election, despite losing the popular vote to Clinton by nearly 3 million votes.

Trump’s Domestic Policy

The tax overhaul that lowered corporate and individual tax rates, a repeal of the Affordable Care Act's individual mandate, and an immigration policy that sought to end the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program and increase border security
Travel ban on individuals from several predominantly Muslim countries and a zero-tolerance policy on illegal immigration that resulted in the separation of families at the border
Marked by significant polarization and controversy, with many of his policies and actions facing legal challenges and widespread criticism from opponents.

Trump's Foreign Policy

America First
- Trump's foreign policy was characterized by an "America First" approach that emphasized protecting American interests and reducing foreign involvement.
NATO and European Allies
- Trump criticized NATO allies for not contributing their fair share to the organization's budget and called for increased defense spending from other countries.
- Strained relations with European allies, particularly Germany, over trade and security issues.

Investigation and Impeachment

In 2019, a complaint alleged that President Trump had pressured Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky to investigate Joe Biden and his son in exchange for military aid
The House investigated and impeached Trump on charges of abuse of power and obstruction of Congress
The Senate acquitted Trump, with Republicans arguing that it was a politically motivated attempt to remove the president from office
The impeachment and acquittal were controversial and divisive, highlighting the deep polarization and partisanship in American politics.

2020 Pandemic

Covid-19 was first identified in China
spread like crazy all around the world + people had to wear masks
Trump’s Operation Warp Speed → help pharmaceutical companies develop vaccines
Many lost jobs and businesses failed

Election of 2020

Vice president Joe Biden and Kamala Harris defeated the Republican President Donald Trump and vice president Mike Pence
The election took place against the backdrop of the global COVID-19 pandemic and related recession.

Attack on the Capital and a Second Impeachment

Trump held a rally near the White House encouraging supporters to march to the capitol → turned into an attack
Trump’s actions → 1st president to become impeached twice