Unit 3: The Practice of Freedom
During this period (1865-1877)
Government-integrated Confederate states
Establish/protect the rights of formerly enslaved African Americans
Granted citizenship, equal rights, political representation
13th Amendment- abolished slavery and involuntary servitude (except for crime)
14th Amendment (1868)- defined birthright citizenship
Overturned Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) and state-level Black codes
15th Amendment (1870) prohibited Federal government denying citizen right to vote
On account of race, color, and previous condition of servitude
Black men access to right to vote
Enabled participation of thousands and formerly enslaved
Around 2000 black Americans served public office on the local and Senate level
Jim Crow laws interfered with this and had to fight until 1960s to reclaim rights
The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands
Established in 1865-1872
Responsible for managing abandoned and confiscated property of the civil war
Assisted formerly enslaved people becoming citizens
Assistance, clothing, food, legalizing marriages, and establishing schools were all in effect
Centuries of slavery dispersed African American families and changed names by enslavers.
African Americans had to learn how to create kinship bonds and family traditions after slavery
Post-emancipation
African Americans searched for kin through newspapers, word of mouth and Freedmen’s Bureau
Marriages
Black Marriages not considered legally binding but some tried to consecrate their unions legally.
Also adopted a new name that established free status and freedom to express identity
Family reunions
Established through long-lost relatives
Preserve history, resilience, music, and culinary traditions
State governments established Black codes in 1865-1866
Restricted newly gained legal rights
Controlled movement and labor
Attempted to restore social controls of previous slave codes
Restricted advancement by limiting property ownership and requiring entry to labor contracts
Offered little pay
Those that tried to escape could be whipped, fined, or imprisoned for vagrancy
Created rules that even forced black children to serve unpaid apprenticeships without parental consent
Special Field Orders No. 15- 1865 order by Union General William T. Sherman- that redistributed 400k acres of land from SC to Florida to freed African American families
Revoked by President Andrew Johnson, who confiscated plantations and returned to previous owners or purchased by northern investors
Black Americans evicted or shifted to Sharecropping contracts
Sharecropping
Landowners gave land and equipment to formerly enslaved
Required to exchange large share of crops to land owner- prevented economic advancement
Crop liens
Poor farmers received food and supplies on credit against future harvest
Not enough money to repay debt and accumulated it
Convict leasing
In the past, Southern prisons profited by leasing African American male prisoners, who were jailed for debt, false arrest, or minor crimes, to landowners and companies. These prisoners endured harsh conditions resembling slavery and were not compensated for their work.
State constitutions began to include de jure segregation laws after the 1876 election and the Compromise of 1877
Black voting was suppressed through various methods such as poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses.
Racial violence- lynching by former Confederates, political terrorist groups (Ku Klux Klan), and others who embraced white supremacy
Plessy v Ferguson 1896- upheld Louisiana law mandating segregater passenger seats for railroad transportation
Separate but equal
Legal basis for separation and unequal resources, facilities, and rights
Diagrams only show half the number of slaves that people used to maximize profit
Unsanitary and cramped conditions led to death and disease
Guns, nets, and force-feeding prevented resistance
Antislavery activism became prominent.
People circulated diagrams to raise awareness of the
Visual and performance
Conditions slaves had to go through
Black visual and performance artists showed the slave ships to honor the memory of the people who died
Power of law and white supremacy
Led to assault on body, mind, spirit
Punished by whipping in front of families
Nadir- period between the end of Reconstruction and the beginning of the Second World War
Lowest point of race relations
Acts of racism (lynching and mob violence)
Black journalists highlighted racism at the core of Southern lynch laws
Responded to attacks on freedom with trolley boycotts, sympathetic writers, and press to publicize mistreatment and murder
Red summer- racial violence by white supremacy in 1917 and 1921
Summer of 1919 global flu pandemic, competition, racial discrimination against Black veterans
Contributed to hate crimes and urban race riots
1921 Tulsa race massacre- white residents and city officials destroyed homes and business in Greenwood aka black wall street which was a prominent African American Community in the businesses
racial violence prevented African Americans from passing wealth and property
African Americans resisted white supremacy through activism , published accounts, and armed self defense
Great Migration- racial discrimination, violence, and economic disadvantage led to this
Dunbar’s “We Wear the Mask and “the Veil”- represent Black struggle for self improvement due to discrimination
Color line- metaphor for racial discrimination and legalized segregation that remained after slavery
Double consciousness- struggle of subordinated groups in opressive society. a way to examine unequal realities of American life
Resulted from social alienation through racism and discrimination.
Also fostered adaption and resistance
Booker T Washington- leader who advocated for industrial education, training, economic advancement, and independence
The Atlanta Exposition Address- suggested that Black americans should remain intthe south, gain education for industrial before political rights
Du Bois- promoted a liberal arts education and a civil rights agenda.
Educators and activists- promoted women education, suffrage, and inclusion
Nannie Helen Burroughs- Make Shorter: She was a suffragist, church leader, and daughter of enslaved people. She helped establish the National Association of Colored Women in 1896 and founded a school for women and girls in Washington, D.C. in 1909.
Literature poetry and music encouraged pride, heritage, and cultural acheivement
James Weldon Johnson- created “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” that widely became known as the Black National Anthem
Advocated for rights during Suffrage movement in the 20th century
Black women’s leadership- rebuilt communities and generations after slavery
Entered the workforce, organized labor unions, and supported families
Became leaders as Churchwomen and in denomination organizations countering race and gender stereotypes to exemplify the dignity, beauty, and strength
Created businesses organizations that catered and improved black communities’ independence
Black Press- provided local and national news, documented aspects of community life, served as a vehicle for protesting discrimination
Methodist Episcopal Churchs - AME was found in 1816 as first Black Christin denomination and soon Black Churches transformed Christian worship greatly throughout the country
Churches served as safe spaces for organization, worship, and culture
Developed activists, musicians, and leaders
Madam CJ Walker- first woman millionaire who highlighted the beauty of Black advancement and supported community iniatives
Discrimination and segregation led African Americans to create their colleges
The first were private colleges created by white philanthropists.
Wilberforce University- founded by AME and first fully owned by African Americans
Second Morrill Act (1890)- states must either create separate black universities or race wasn’t a determining factor in admissions.
Led to more federal funding for HBCUs
Emphasized liberal arts and vocational industrial model
Ex Fisk U and Tuskegee Institute respectively
Primary providers of postsecondary education for Blacks
Transformed access to education, training, and economic development
Spaces for cultural pride, scholarship and addressing racial equity gaps in higher education
BGLOs- Black Greek-letter organizations were mostly white institutions
Black Americans found spaces for support for self-improvement, educational excellence, leadership, and lifelong community service.
Fisk Jubilee Singers- student choir at Fisk University that introduced religious/musical tradition of African American spirituals on global stage
Encouraged defining personal identity and political advocation during times of nadir
Black aesthetic- reflected artistic and cultural achievements of Black creators
Innovations in musc- blues, jazz, art, and literature
Artistic innovations countered racial stereotypes, reflecting African American migrations from South to urban North and Midwest.
Encompassed cultural and political movements
Harlem Renaissance- was a cultural revolution in the 1920s and 1930s that brought about a flourishing of Black literary, artistic, and intellectual life in the United States.
Black scholars, artists, and activists used photography to counter racist representations used during Jim Crow laws
Photographers focused on history, folk culture, and pride in an African heritage
Ex. James Van Der Zee- change perceptions of African Americans by showcasing the qualities of the "new negro." They depicted Black life in different aspects like work, leisure, education, religion, and home, highlighting the free-spiritedness, beauty, and dignity of Black individuals.
Writers and artists during this period explored African heritage instead of colonialism and slavery
Incorporated Africa and African American identity and heritage for personal reflection
Used imagery to counter stereotypes about African people and landscapes
During Harlem Renaissance and Jazz Age- opportunities for record labels, musicians, and vocalists appeared and also became popular
Radio allowed people to listen to blues, gospel, and jazz nationwide
Black music
Roots in slavery
Acoustic music from the south
Electric version from the North during Great Migration
Themes such as despair and hope, love, and loss, using repetition, call and response, and vernacular language
Jazz
Described as a distinctive contribution to the arts
Developed in New Orleans
New styles followed migration to north, midwest, and west
Continues to evolve today.
Flourished in cabarets on broadway and film
Ethel Waters- first African American to start in own television show 1930s
All black musicals- ex Cabin in the Sky (1943)
Black actors and dancers
Ethel Waters
New Negro movement writers believed that US promoted the idea that Blacks had no cultural contributions
Led to feeling inferior
In response, Black Americans were urged to study history, experience, and own education
The New Negro movement challenged the idea that African Americans had no history or culture.
Created literature and educational materials
Getting Black history taught in schools- all Black students could learn about the movement.
Started 250 years ago
Emerged through work of Black activists, writers, educatiors, and archivists
African Free School- 18th century provided education to enslaved andfree Blacks in NY
Prepare black abolitionists
NY public libarary- basis for Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture.
W.E.B. Du Bois’s- also contributed research and writings for sociological surveys
Zora Neale Hurston- anthropologist who documented culture and linguistic expression of Black Americans
Carter Godwin Woodson- founded Black history month, published works on Black perspectives in history
One of the largest migrationtions in US history from south to North, Midwest, and western during 1910-1970
Labor shortages during WWI and WII led to Black people seeking jobs in Industrial areas in the North
Environmental factors- floods, boll weevils, and spoiled crops led to migration
Dangers of lynching and racial violence posed a threat in the Jim Crow South
railway system and Black press allowed for migration
Trains offered travel and press offered instruction and support
Transformed American cities, black culture, and black communities
African American culture spread to New York, Chicago, Pittsburgh, and Los Angeles
Shift from rural to urban dwelling
New connections with the north and environment
Increasing racial tensions
Some employers arrested black americans before they could leave
National Urban league- was an interracial organization in 1910 that helped migrating black americans from south to northern urban life. Helped acclimation through secure housing and jobs. Later supported March on washington and worked with Southern Christian Leadership Conference during the Civil Rights movement
Decline of Carribean economies during WWI
Expansion of US political and economic interests
Panama canal acquisition 1903- led to black people seeking opportunities for economic, political, and education
More than 140000 migrants and most settled in NY and Florida from 1899-1937
Sparked tensions but created blends of black culture in the US
Increased religious and linguistic diversity in African American communities
Catholic, Anglican, Episcopalian, non-english speaking
Radicalization of black thought, black empowerment, autonomy, social movements
Marcus Garvey- led largest pan-african movement in Black American history
Through UNIA aimed to unite black people, maintained thousands of members internationally
Popularized phrase “Africa for the Africans” through back to africa movement
Founded Black Star Line- a steamship company focused on repatriating African Americans to Africa
Outlined objective of UNIA for Black liberation from colonialism in African diaspora
Became model for nationalist movement for African Americans
The UNIA's red, black, and green flag remains a symbol of Black solidarity and freedom globally.
This association helped African Americans who were discriminated
Helped embrace african heritage
Industrial, political, and educational advancement and self-determination
separatist Black institutions
Led to belonging to American ideals through abolition, freedom, representation, and racial equality
Believed in birthright citizenship
Frederick Douglass- famous abolitionist but not protected from recapture
Some found refuge in other nations
Anti-emigrationists- celebrated independence but believed in exploitation based on race
Contradictory
During this period (1865-1877)
Government-integrated Confederate states
Establish/protect the rights of formerly enslaved African Americans
Granted citizenship, equal rights, political representation
13th Amendment- abolished slavery and involuntary servitude (except for crime)
14th Amendment (1868)- defined birthright citizenship
Overturned Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) and state-level Black codes
15th Amendment (1870) prohibited Federal government denying citizen right to vote
On account of race, color, and previous condition of servitude
Black men access to right to vote
Enabled participation of thousands and formerly enslaved
Around 2000 black Americans served public office on the local and Senate level
Jim Crow laws interfered with this and had to fight until 1960s to reclaim rights
The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands
Established in 1865-1872
Responsible for managing abandoned and confiscated property of the civil war
Assisted formerly enslaved people becoming citizens
Assistance, clothing, food, legalizing marriages, and establishing schools were all in effect
Centuries of slavery dispersed African American families and changed names by enslavers.
African Americans had to learn how to create kinship bonds and family traditions after slavery
Post-emancipation
African Americans searched for kin through newspapers, word of mouth and Freedmen’s Bureau
Marriages
Black Marriages not considered legally binding but some tried to consecrate their unions legally.
Also adopted a new name that established free status and freedom to express identity
Family reunions
Established through long-lost relatives
Preserve history, resilience, music, and culinary traditions
State governments established Black codes in 1865-1866
Restricted newly gained legal rights
Controlled movement and labor
Attempted to restore social controls of previous slave codes
Restricted advancement by limiting property ownership and requiring entry to labor contracts
Offered little pay
Those that tried to escape could be whipped, fined, or imprisoned for vagrancy
Created rules that even forced black children to serve unpaid apprenticeships without parental consent
Special Field Orders No. 15- 1865 order by Union General William T. Sherman- that redistributed 400k acres of land from SC to Florida to freed African American families
Revoked by President Andrew Johnson, who confiscated plantations and returned to previous owners or purchased by northern investors
Black Americans evicted or shifted to Sharecropping contracts
Sharecropping
Landowners gave land and equipment to formerly enslaved
Required to exchange large share of crops to land owner- prevented economic advancement
Crop liens
Poor farmers received food and supplies on credit against future harvest
Not enough money to repay debt and accumulated it
Convict leasing
In the past, Southern prisons profited by leasing African American male prisoners, who were jailed for debt, false arrest, or minor crimes, to landowners and companies. These prisoners endured harsh conditions resembling slavery and were not compensated for their work.
State constitutions began to include de jure segregation laws after the 1876 election and the Compromise of 1877
Black voting was suppressed through various methods such as poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses.
Racial violence- lynching by former Confederates, political terrorist groups (Ku Klux Klan), and others who embraced white supremacy
Plessy v Ferguson 1896- upheld Louisiana law mandating segregater passenger seats for railroad transportation
Separate but equal
Legal basis for separation and unequal resources, facilities, and rights
Diagrams only show half the number of slaves that people used to maximize profit
Unsanitary and cramped conditions led to death and disease
Guns, nets, and force-feeding prevented resistance
Antislavery activism became prominent.
People circulated diagrams to raise awareness of the
Visual and performance
Conditions slaves had to go through
Black visual and performance artists showed the slave ships to honor the memory of the people who died
Power of law and white supremacy
Led to assault on body, mind, spirit
Punished by whipping in front of families
Nadir- period between the end of Reconstruction and the beginning of the Second World War
Lowest point of race relations
Acts of racism (lynching and mob violence)
Black journalists highlighted racism at the core of Southern lynch laws
Responded to attacks on freedom with trolley boycotts, sympathetic writers, and press to publicize mistreatment and murder
Red summer- racial violence by white supremacy in 1917 and 1921
Summer of 1919 global flu pandemic, competition, racial discrimination against Black veterans
Contributed to hate crimes and urban race riots
1921 Tulsa race massacre- white residents and city officials destroyed homes and business in Greenwood aka black wall street which was a prominent African American Community in the businesses
racial violence prevented African Americans from passing wealth and property
African Americans resisted white supremacy through activism , published accounts, and armed self defense
Great Migration- racial discrimination, violence, and economic disadvantage led to this
Dunbar’s “We Wear the Mask and “the Veil”- represent Black struggle for self improvement due to discrimination
Color line- metaphor for racial discrimination and legalized segregation that remained after slavery
Double consciousness- struggle of subordinated groups in opressive society. a way to examine unequal realities of American life
Resulted from social alienation through racism and discrimination.
Also fostered adaption and resistance
Booker T Washington- leader who advocated for industrial education, training, economic advancement, and independence
The Atlanta Exposition Address- suggested that Black americans should remain intthe south, gain education for industrial before political rights
Du Bois- promoted a liberal arts education and a civil rights agenda.
Educators and activists- promoted women education, suffrage, and inclusion
Nannie Helen Burroughs- Make Shorter: She was a suffragist, church leader, and daughter of enslaved people. She helped establish the National Association of Colored Women in 1896 and founded a school for women and girls in Washington, D.C. in 1909.
Literature poetry and music encouraged pride, heritage, and cultural acheivement
James Weldon Johnson- created “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” that widely became known as the Black National Anthem
Advocated for rights during Suffrage movement in the 20th century
Black women’s leadership- rebuilt communities and generations after slavery
Entered the workforce, organized labor unions, and supported families
Became leaders as Churchwomen and in denomination organizations countering race and gender stereotypes to exemplify the dignity, beauty, and strength
Created businesses organizations that catered and improved black communities’ independence
Black Press- provided local and national news, documented aspects of community life, served as a vehicle for protesting discrimination
Methodist Episcopal Churchs - AME was found in 1816 as first Black Christin denomination and soon Black Churches transformed Christian worship greatly throughout the country
Churches served as safe spaces for organization, worship, and culture
Developed activists, musicians, and leaders
Madam CJ Walker- first woman millionaire who highlighted the beauty of Black advancement and supported community iniatives
Discrimination and segregation led African Americans to create their colleges
The first were private colleges created by white philanthropists.
Wilberforce University- founded by AME and first fully owned by African Americans
Second Morrill Act (1890)- states must either create separate black universities or race wasn’t a determining factor in admissions.
Led to more federal funding for HBCUs
Emphasized liberal arts and vocational industrial model
Ex Fisk U and Tuskegee Institute respectively
Primary providers of postsecondary education for Blacks
Transformed access to education, training, and economic development
Spaces for cultural pride, scholarship and addressing racial equity gaps in higher education
BGLOs- Black Greek-letter organizations were mostly white institutions
Black Americans found spaces for support for self-improvement, educational excellence, leadership, and lifelong community service.
Fisk Jubilee Singers- student choir at Fisk University that introduced religious/musical tradition of African American spirituals on global stage
Encouraged defining personal identity and political advocation during times of nadir
Black aesthetic- reflected artistic and cultural achievements of Black creators
Innovations in musc- blues, jazz, art, and literature
Artistic innovations countered racial stereotypes, reflecting African American migrations from South to urban North and Midwest.
Encompassed cultural and political movements
Harlem Renaissance- was a cultural revolution in the 1920s and 1930s that brought about a flourishing of Black literary, artistic, and intellectual life in the United States.
Black scholars, artists, and activists used photography to counter racist representations used during Jim Crow laws
Photographers focused on history, folk culture, and pride in an African heritage
Ex. James Van Der Zee- change perceptions of African Americans by showcasing the qualities of the "new negro." They depicted Black life in different aspects like work, leisure, education, religion, and home, highlighting the free-spiritedness, beauty, and dignity of Black individuals.
Writers and artists during this period explored African heritage instead of colonialism and slavery
Incorporated Africa and African American identity and heritage for personal reflection
Used imagery to counter stereotypes about African people and landscapes
During Harlem Renaissance and Jazz Age- opportunities for record labels, musicians, and vocalists appeared and also became popular
Radio allowed people to listen to blues, gospel, and jazz nationwide
Black music
Roots in slavery
Acoustic music from the south
Electric version from the North during Great Migration
Themes such as despair and hope, love, and loss, using repetition, call and response, and vernacular language
Jazz
Described as a distinctive contribution to the arts
Developed in New Orleans
New styles followed migration to north, midwest, and west
Continues to evolve today.
Flourished in cabarets on broadway and film
Ethel Waters- first African American to start in own television show 1930s
All black musicals- ex Cabin in the Sky (1943)
Black actors and dancers
Ethel Waters
New Negro movement writers believed that US promoted the idea that Blacks had no cultural contributions
Led to feeling inferior
In response, Black Americans were urged to study history, experience, and own education
The New Negro movement challenged the idea that African Americans had no history or culture.
Created literature and educational materials
Getting Black history taught in schools- all Black students could learn about the movement.
Started 250 years ago
Emerged through work of Black activists, writers, educatiors, and archivists
African Free School- 18th century provided education to enslaved andfree Blacks in NY
Prepare black abolitionists
NY public libarary- basis for Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture.
W.E.B. Du Bois’s- also contributed research and writings for sociological surveys
Zora Neale Hurston- anthropologist who documented culture and linguistic expression of Black Americans
Carter Godwin Woodson- founded Black history month, published works on Black perspectives in history
One of the largest migrationtions in US history from south to North, Midwest, and western during 1910-1970
Labor shortages during WWI and WII led to Black people seeking jobs in Industrial areas in the North
Environmental factors- floods, boll weevils, and spoiled crops led to migration
Dangers of lynching and racial violence posed a threat in the Jim Crow South
railway system and Black press allowed for migration
Trains offered travel and press offered instruction and support
Transformed American cities, black culture, and black communities
African American culture spread to New York, Chicago, Pittsburgh, and Los Angeles
Shift from rural to urban dwelling
New connections with the north and environment
Increasing racial tensions
Some employers arrested black americans before they could leave
National Urban league- was an interracial organization in 1910 that helped migrating black americans from south to northern urban life. Helped acclimation through secure housing and jobs. Later supported March on washington and worked with Southern Christian Leadership Conference during the Civil Rights movement
Decline of Carribean economies during WWI
Expansion of US political and economic interests
Panama canal acquisition 1903- led to black people seeking opportunities for economic, political, and education
More than 140000 migrants and most settled in NY and Florida from 1899-1937
Sparked tensions but created blends of black culture in the US
Increased religious and linguistic diversity in African American communities
Catholic, Anglican, Episcopalian, non-english speaking
Radicalization of black thought, black empowerment, autonomy, social movements
Marcus Garvey- led largest pan-african movement in Black American history
Through UNIA aimed to unite black people, maintained thousands of members internationally
Popularized phrase “Africa for the Africans” through back to africa movement
Founded Black Star Line- a steamship company focused on repatriating African Americans to Africa
Outlined objective of UNIA for Black liberation from colonialism in African diaspora
Became model for nationalist movement for African Americans
The UNIA's red, black, and green flag remains a symbol of Black solidarity and freedom globally.
This association helped African Americans who were discriminated
Helped embrace african heritage
Industrial, political, and educational advancement and self-determination
separatist Black institutions
Led to belonging to American ideals through abolition, freedom, representation, and racial equality
Believed in birthright citizenship
Frederick Douglass- famous abolitionist but not protected from recapture
Some found refuge in other nations
Anti-emigrationists- celebrated independence but believed in exploitation based on race
Contradictory