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What is Hindsight Bias?
The tendency to believe that an outcome was predictable after it has already occurred, expressed as 'I knew it all along.'
What does overconfidence refer to in cognitive psychology?
Overestimating one's ability to do or make something.
Define Confirmation Bias.
The tendency to gather information that supports preexisting expectations.
What are the key elements of Experimental Design?
Hypothesis, Operational Definition, Reliability, Validity, Population, Sample Size, and Convenience Sampling.
What are the two types of Measurement Instruments in research?
Qualitative (non-numerical data) and Quantitative (numerical data).
What is a Case Study?
An in-depth investigation of an individual or a small group with unusual traits.
List one pro and one con of using a Case Study.
Pro: Provides detailed information; Con: No correlation data or generalization.
What is a Meta-Analysis?
Taking multiple studies and drawing one’s own conclusions from them.
What does Naturalistic Observation involve?
Observing subjects in their natural habitat without manipulation.
What is Reflex Arc?
The direct pathway from sensory organs to the spinal cord bypassing the brain.
How does the Autonomic Nervous System function?
It regulates involuntary movements like heart rate and digestion.
What is the role of the Pituitary Gland?
The master gland that sends signals to other glands in the body.
Define Action Potential.
The electrical signal that travels down the axon when enough neurotransmitters are received.
What is the function of Myelin Sheath?
It protects the axon and speeds up the electrical impulses traveling along the neuron.
What triggers the Firing of a Neuron?
The release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft when it reaches its threshold.
What is analytical transduction in audition?
The process of converting sound waves into neural impulses for interpretation.
What is the function of the Retina?
Sensory receptors for vision where transduction occurs.
Explain the concept of Depth Perception.
The ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge distance.
What does Color Constancy refer to?
The ability to perceive colors as constant despite changes in lighting.
What is the difference between Top-Down Processing and Bottom-Up Processing?
Top-Down Processing involves interpreting stimuli based on pre-existing knowledge; Bottom-Up Processing analyzes individual parts to form a whole.
What are Gestalt Principles?
Rules explaining how we organize visual information into meaningful wholes.
Top-Down Processing
When we observe the whole image first and apply existing knowledge to give it meaning (shorter time, less accurate).
Bottom-Up Processing
When we analyze the individual parts of a stimulus to gain meaning of the whole (takes longer, but more accurate).
Gestalt Principles
Rules of how we understand and organize information, including proximity, similarity, closure, and figure & ground.
Color Constancy
The perception that colors remain the same regardless of changes in lighting conditions.
Selective Attention
Focusing on one particular stimulus while ignoring others (e.g., cocktail party effect).
Availability Heuristic
Judging a situation based on similar situations that come to mind (most recent information).
Belief Perseverance
Maintaining a belief even after it has been proven wrong.
Functional Fixedness
The inability to see a new
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