AP Psychology Notes (Full Year)

Cognitive Biases:

• Hindsight Bias: “I knew it all along” idea

• Overconfidence: overestimating your ability to do or make something

• Confirmation Bias: the tendency to gather information that confirms preexisting expectations

Experimental Design:

Elements of Research Design:

• Hypothesis

• Operational Definition (creating parameters for your study so it can be replicated)

• Reliability (consistency)

• Validity (accuracy)

• Population (people you’re taking from) and sample size (taken from population)

• Convenience Sampling 

Measurement Instruments:

• Qualitative (non-numerical data)  

• Quantitative (numerical data) 

• Survey Method 

Conclusions:

• Peer Review

• Replication

Non-Experimental Design: Non-experimental design lacks manipulation and control and has no cause-and-effect

Case Study:

• In-depth investigation of an individual or a small group who may have a highly unusual trait(s)

• Pros: details of subjects, unique quality or situation, unethical treatment

• Cons: no correlation data, no generalization, time-consuming

Meta-Analysis:

• Taking multiple studies that have previously been done and drawing your own conclusions

• Pros: accuracy, pose and answer questions

• Cons: applicability

Naturalistic Observation:

• Observing things in their natural habitat

• Pros: ecological validity 

• Cons: no manipulation 

Correlation:

• The extent to which to variables are related

• Pros: predict behavior 

• Cons: directionality problem, third variable problem 

• Illusory correlation: perceiving that a relationship exists when it doesn’t or that it’s stronger than it is 

Ethics:

Governance:

• American Psychological Association (governing body for psychology)

• Federal Regulations (harm to self or others)

• Institutional Review Board (local)

Animal Research:

• Have to have a purpose 

• Acquire legally

• Humane treatment

Ethical Guidelines:

• Informed Consent

• Protection from Harm and Discomfort 

• Confidentiality

• Debriefing

AAQ (Article Analysis Question):

Steps:

1. Identify the research method (1 point)

2. State the operational definition (1 point)

3. Describe the meaning of the differences in the means (1 point)

4. Identify at least one ethical guideline applied by the researchers (1 point)

5. Explain the extent to which it can or cannot be generalized (1 point)

6. Explain if the hypothesis is or is not supported by the study (2 point)

Interaction Of Heredity & Environment:

Nature vs. Nurture:

• Heredity = nature, genetics, etc.

• Environmental Factors  = nurture, experience, family interactions, education

• Nurture works on what nature endows

Evolutionary Psychology: How natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes.

Natural Selection:

• The best traits will be passed down 

• The unnecessary or negative traits will die off

• It's not the strongest species that survives, it is the most intelligent species

• Charles Darwin

Eugenics:

•  Limiting reproduction to only the healthy and desirable genetics

• Negative and positive versions of eugenics

Research Tools for Nature vs. Nurture:

• Twin Studies 

• Family Studies

• Adoption Studies 

Anatomy Of Neurons:

Neurons:

• Neurons are nerve cells (building blocks of the brain and nervous system)

• Glia cell protects and nourishes a neuron (50x more abundant than neurons)

• The nerve is a bundle of neurons 

Dendrites:

• Branch like structures that extend out of the cell body 

• Dendrites have the receptors on the ends that receive neurotransmitters to start the chemical signaling process

Soma:

• The cell body

• The life and support system of the cell 

• The nucleus 

• Determines if a neuron will fire or not

Axon + Myelin Sheath:

• Axon is long piece that acts a a pathway for electrical signals that will cause the neuron to fire

• Myelin Sheath is a coating that protects the axon and speeds up the electrical signal traveling

Terminal Branches:

• Root system of the neuron 

• Where all the neurotransmitters are housed and sent out of

• Vesicles are the sacks that hold the neurotransmitters

Synapse:

• Space between two neurons (neurons never touch)

• When a neuron fires, it sends neurotransmitters into the synapse, and the other neuron will pick those up.

Firing of a Neuron:

Resting Potential:

• Dendrites are waiting to receive chemical signals

• Neuron is polarized

• Potassium ions inside the axon

• Sodium ions outside the axon

Action Potential:

• When the dendrites have received enough neurotransmitters to reach the required level

• The soma initiates action potential and causes an electrical signal 

• All or none principle 

• Axon opens channels both potassium and sodium ions mix inside and create the electrical impulse that travels down the axon

• Depolarizes the Neuron

Neuron Fires:

• The neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft to reach the other neuron

• Any leftover neurotransmitters will be reabsorbed (repute)

Refractory Period: 

• The neurons cool down time before they can be fired again

• lasts milliseconds-5 or 6 seconds, depending on the sense

Multiple Sclerosis:

• A disease caused by the deterioration of the myelin sheath

• Neurons don't function as well and are more susceptible to harm

• People who have this have difficulty moving and walking 

Myasthenia Gravis:

• Connected to muscles raptor sites for acetylcholine

• Autoimmune system problems that cause weakness in muscles

The Nervous System:

Functions of The Nervous System:

• Sensory Input: gather information

• Integration: processes information

• Motor Output: The brain sends signals to muscles and glands to respond

Central Nervous System:

• Brain: the boss of the nervous system

• Spinal Cord: highway from the brain to the body 

Peripheral Nervous system:

• Nerves: like wires that connect the brain and the spinal cord to the rest of the body

• Somatic nervous system: voluntary movements

• Autonomic nervous system: involuntary movements

Autonomic Nervous System:

• Sympathetic nervous system: fight, flight, or freeze response

• Parasympathetic nervous system: calms you down, rests, and digest

Types of Neurons:

• Sensory (afferent) neurons: take messages from sensory receptors

• Motor (efferent) neurons: transmit signals to muscles and other organs

• Interneurons: relay neurons (connectors) help translate information through a motor output

Reflexes:

• Reflex: automatic response to a sensory stimulus 

• Reflex Arc: when sensory organs direct the message to the spinal cord instead of the brain

The Endocrine System:

Endocrine System:

• Sending messages long-distance 

• Circulates and regulates hormones

• Transports hormones through the bloodstream 

Pituitary Gland:

• The master gland

• Sending signals to other glands of the body to release specific hormones

• Example: puberty 

Hormones to Know:

• Adrenaline: comes from the adrenal glands and increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar. (Long-term adrenaline can cause diabetes and heart disease)

• Ghrelin & Leptin (hunger hormones): Ghrelin tells you you're hungry, and leptin tells you you're full

• Testosterone & Estrogen (Sex Hormones): Testosterone does human sex drive/aggression, and Estrogen is important for reproduction.

• Oxytocin (Love hormone): plays a role in social acceptance needs and pregnancy/birth with baby bonding 

• Melatonin (sleep): regulates circadian rhythms, helps you sleep, produces in response to darkness

The Brain:

Brain Stem:

• Medulla: controls basic functions like breathing and heart rate

• Reticular Activating System: brain’s reward system, learning cognition, etc.

• Cerebellum: muscles movements and balance 

The Cerebral Cortex (Limbic system):

• Hypothalamus: a bridge between endocrine and nervous systems and the 5Fs

• Thalamus: directs traffic of senses (except smell)

• Pituitary gland: master gland that holds, controls, and releases hormones

• Hippocampus: memory base, converts short-term memories into long-term

• Amygdala: center for fear, triggers if a threat is posed, intense emotions, etc.

• Corpus callosum: connects the two hemispheres of the brain

• Gray matter helps keep your brain safe 

⭐️ The more brain wrinkles you have the more knowledge you have

The Cerebral Cortex (Lobes of The Cortex):

• Parietal Lobe: deals with all sensory information processing 

(Sensory Cortex in this lobe deals with touch)

(Wernicke’s Area understands/comprehends and processes speech) 

• Occipital Lobe: processes all the visual information

• Temporal Lobes: deals with auditory information

• Frontal Lobes and the Prefrontal cortex: deals with linguistic processing, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning. (Motor Cortex controls muscle and skeletal movements)

• Broca’s Area (only in the left hemisphere): responsible for speech production

⭐️ The Prefrontal Cortex doesn’t fully develop until 25 years of age

Eyes & Vision:

Transduction: conversion from environmental stimuli to neural-impulse so the brain can understand

Phototransduction: conversion of light energy (vision) to neural-impulse so brain can understand

Light Characteristics:

• Wavelength (hue/color): short wavelengths= bluish colors and high-pitched sounds, Longer wavelengths= reddish colors and low-pitched sounds.

• Intensity (brightness): great amplitude=bright colors and loud sounds, small amplitude = dull colors and soft sounds.

• Saturation (purity)

The Eye:

• Cornea: transparent tissue at the front

• Iris/pupil: iris is the muscle that expands and contracts the pupil

• Lens: tissue behind the pupil, focuses light rays to retina

• Retina: sensory receptors where transduction takes place and sends information to the brain (rods and cones)

• Fovea: central focus point of retina (only cones)

• (Can I Learn Reading Father)

Optic Nerve: 

• Carries now nerve impulses from the retina to the brain

• Goes to Thalamus first 

• Then the occipital lobe for information processing 

Photoreceptors:

• Rods and Cons

• More rods than cones in the high

• Cones are for color and rods are for light and dark

⭐️ Bipolar cells receives information rods and cones and transduction happens 

Theories of Color Vision: 

• Helmholtz thinks retina contains three receptors that are sensitive to red, blue, and green colors and light triggers certain amounts of each to blend/make other colors we see (Trichromatic Theory)

• Hering thinks we have opponent colors (pairs) that battle it out to see what light waves we are seeing (Opponent process theory)

Ears and Audition:

The Stimulus Input: Sound Waves:

• Acoustical Transduction: conversion of sound waves to information/neural impulses

• Sound waves are the compression and decompression of air molecules

Sound Characteristics:

• Frequency (pitch): short wavelengths= higher frequencies, longer wavelengths= low frequencies

• Intensity (loudness): great amplitude=loud, small amplitude=quiet

• Quality (timber/clarity)

⭐️ Prolonged exposure above 85 decibels starts hearing loss (cannot be fixed)

The Ear:

• Outer Ear: pinna, collects sounds

• Middle Ear: chamber between eardrum and cochlea. (Has three tiny bones: hammer, anvil, and stirrup which concentrates vibrations to the cochlea’s oval window)

• Inner Ear: cochlea, semicircular, canals, and vestibular sacs

• Transduction takes place in the cochlea

• The cochlea is fluid-filled and lined with tiny hairs (basilar membrane) convert the rhythm of vibrations to an electrical impulse that tells the auditory nerve information

• The auditory nerve takes information from the thalamus and sends that to the auditory cortex

Theories of Audition:

• (Place Theory): different frequencies affect different parts/places of the membrane and triggers different responses/activations

• (Frequency Theory): entire cochlea is activated and the speed at which the frequency gives us specific sounds

Perception:

Types of Perception:

• Top-Down Processing: when we observe the whole image first and apply existing knowledge to give it meaning (shorter time, less accurate)

• Bottom-Up Processing: when we analyze the individual parts of a stimulus to gain meaning of the whole (takes longer, but more accurate)

• Perceptual Set (Top-down processing): perceives something in the way we expect it to be

• Schemas: impact/influence perception that is mental filler or mental models that organize our information about the world (accommodate or assimilate)

Perception Rules:

• GESTALT Principles: German word for pattern or whole that represents the rules of how we understand and organize information

• Proximity: how tendency to group things together if they are close to each other

• Similarity: we tend to see similar objects as the same thing (based on shape, color, and size)

• Closure: we mentally connect the dots or complete images because we know what's trying to be conveyed

• Figure & Ground: In everything we see there is a figure and a ground. We focus on the figure and ignore the ground.

Depth Perception:

• Binocular Cues: uses both of our eyes to figure out depth (retinal disparity: each of our eyes perceives different things but the brain connects our image and convergence: when your lines of vision converge and you see double of something)

• Monocular Cues: use one of our eyes to figure out depth (relative clarity: the better the focus the closer it is to you, relative size: smaller objects are farther away, interposition: if one object is blocking another we perceive that object as closer, texture gradient: the closer we are the clearer the texture/gradient, Linear perspective: parallel lines appear to converge together as they get farther away)

• Visual Cliff Experiment: The baby crawled across a clear table with an optical illusion drop to test babi’s depth perception

Visual Perceptual Constancies:

• Color constancy: the colors we see are the same colors no matter if they are changed by light or other conditions but we perceive them as a different shade

• Size constancy: we perceive distance as causing objects to change sizes but our brain knows they are the same size

• Shape constancy: we perceive shapes as the same even when they appear different

• Lightness/Brightness constancy: depending on how lighting and shadows impact an object changes how we perceive the shape/look of something

• Phi Phenomenon: an illusion of movement from stationary objects

• Relative motion: it looks like fixed objects are moving when you yourself are moving

Attention & Perception:

• Selective attention: when we focus on one particular stimulus (Cocktail party effect: the ability to attend to one voice in a room full of other voices)

• Selective inattention: lack of registering or perceiving particular stimuli because your attention is on a different task (Change blindness: when we don't see small changes when we don’t expect the change)

Cognition-Thinking, Creativity, and Problem Solving:

Strategies:

• Algorithm: a rule that guarantees the right solution to a problem (impractical)

• Heuristics: rule of thumb for judgment, not guaranteed (quicker method to solve a problem)

• Availability Heuristic: judging a situation based on similar situations that come to mind (most recent information)

• Representativeness Heuristic: judging a situation based on prototypes (influences stereotypes)

• Creativity: little correlation between creativity and intelligence (convergent thinking: aligns with one idea, divergent: goes another through another idea)

• Insight: when the solution to the problem comes out of the blue

Overconfidence Bias:

• Belief Bias: people accept any conclusions that fit with their personal beliefs

• Belief Perseverance: maintaining a belief even after it has been proven wrong

Cognitive Problems:

• Functional Fixedness: the inability to see a new use for an object

• Confirmation Bias: we look for evidence to confirm our beliefs and ignore information that disproves our beliefs

• Framing: a way a problem is presented changes how we view it

• Gamblers Fallacy: when you predict random events based on previous random events

• Sunk Cost Fallacy: when you feel you’ve invested so much time, money, ex. into something that you have to stick with it

Cognitive Psychology:

Memory

• Memory: the persistence of learning overtime via the storage and retrieval of information

• Memory has three parts: encoding, storage, and retrieval

• Encoding: putting things into storage

• Storage: short and long-term memory

• Retrieval: The process of bringing memory into one’s consciousness

• Sensory memory: taking in stimuli and selecting one for further processing

• Iconic memory: stays for a tenth of a second then refreshes

• Echoic memory: stays for 3-4 seconds then refreshes

• Initial encoding: starts the creation of new neuron connections (occurs as soon as one stimulus is selected for processing)

Three Ways we Encode:

• Semantic Encoding: makes neural connections based on meaning

• Visual Encoding: makes neural connections based on appearance

• Acoustic Encoding: makes neural connections based on sounds and words

Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding:

• Automatic Encoding: we automatically encode information, unconscious encoding, well-learned information, parallel processing

• Effortful Encoding: requires attention and conscious effort

Short-Term Memory (Storage):

• Only stores 5-9 items

• The magic number is 7 (plus or minus 2)

• Working memory: takes 20-30 seconds

• Is concerned with only immediate processing

⭐️ Encoding gets short-term memory to long-term memory (the best way is semantics)

Long-Term Memory (Storage):

• Long-term Potentiation: long-lasting and strengthening the connections between two neurons through semantics, association, etc. (Strong emotions can make for stronger/longer memory) Drugs can block LTP and affect learning

• Long-term memory types: explicit and implicit

• Explicit: facts and experiences memory (Types: flashbulb ex. 9/11, episodic ex. wedding, and semantic ex. school facts)

• Implicit: procedural, muscle, or skill memory, and the cerebellum helps facilitate that response

• Prospective memory: remembering future things

• Retrospective memory: remembering past things

Retrieval:

• Retrieval: getting information out either through recall or recognition

• Retrieval cues: priming (association activation) and context (environment matches memory)

• State-Dependent memory: information is easily recalled when in the same “state” of consciousness it was learned in

• Mood congruent memory: the tendency to recall experiences consistent with one’s mood

• Hermann Ebbinghaus: did research on the capacity of verbal memory and he found practice makes perfect (repetition), the spacing effect (studying over a long period of time is better for memory than cramming), and the serial position effect (our tendency to best recall the first ex. primary effect and last ex. recency effect items in a list) *middle information is forgotten most often

Phobias:

What is a Phobia:

• A phobia is a disruptive/excessive fear of a particular object or situation

• Two types: specific and social

• Effects people’s work, school, and social life

• Anxiety that comes with phobias negatively impacts a person's life

Intelligence & Achievement:

What is intelligence and how do we measure it?

• Intelligence: the ability to derive information, learn from experience, adapt to the environment, understand, and correctly utilize thought and reason

• Historically we measure intelligence by your IQ score

Psychometric Principles:

• Standardization: uniform test administration

• Reliability: if a test yields similar results each time it’s measured

• Validity: measures what it’s intended to and anticipates a future measure

• Socio-Cultural Responsiveness: stereotype lift vs. stereotype threat

⭐ The Flynn Effect: the observation that IQ scores have been steadily increasing over time due to a combination of factors

Academic Achievement:

• Fixed Mindset: the belief that abilities and intelligence are fixed traits

• Growth Mindset: the belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication and hard work

Classical and Operant Conditioning:

Classical Conditioning:

• A learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus, famously demonstrated by Pavlov's experiments with dogs. *associative learning*

• Unconditioned Stimulus: a stimulus that elicits an automatic or involuntary response

• Unconditioned Response: natural response to an unconditioned stimulus

• Neutral Stimulus: association to unconditioned stimulus

• Conditioned Stimulus: a repeated neutral stimulus that now elicits a conditioned response

• Conditioned Response: a learned or required response

Classical Procedures:

• Acquisition: When a behavior, such as a conditioned response, has been learned

• Extinction: the association of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented

• Spontaneous Recovery: when a behavior is believed to be extinct (the conditioned behavior disappears or stops occurring when the stimulus is present) unexpectedly and quickly returns after a period of rest or a lessened response.

• Generalization: the response happens to similar but not exact stimulus

• Discrimination: the response only happens to the precise stimulus

Operant Conditioning:

• Operant Conditioning: a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior, as illustrated by B.F. Skinner's work with rats and pigeons.

• The Law of Effect: Learning = Behavior + Consequences

• The frequency with which the consequences are happening will dictate how likely the behavior will happen

• Positive Reinforcement: increasing likelihood of behavior by added reinforcement

• Negative Reinforcement: increasing the likelihood of behavior by not adding reinforcement

• Positive Punishment: decreasing the likelihood of behavior by adding punishment

• Negative Punishment: decreasing the likelihood of behavior by not adding punishment

• Aspects of Reinforcement (P1): Primary Reinforcement (need to stay alive) vs. Secondary Reinforcement (not the things you NEED to stay alive)

• Aspects of Reinforcement (P2): Immediate Gratification (immediate reward for connecting situations) vs. Delayed Gratification (delayed reward might not always connect situations)

Schedules of Reinforcement:

• Continuous: every time the behavior is done they get the punishment or reward

• Partial: only some behavior is punished or reinforced

• Types: Fixed ratio (how many times you need to do the behavior to get punished or reinforced), Variable Ratio (it’s unknown how many times you need to do the behavior to get punished or reinforced), Fixed interval (a known periodic time frame reinforcement), Variable Interval (an unknown periodic time frame reinforcement)

Observational Learning:

Objectives of Observational Learning:

• Modeling: mimicking the behavior observed

• Observational Experiment (BoBo Dolls): Stage 1: observe adults, Stage 2: New room, Stage 3: Child Plays

• Children imitate others regardless of where or how they observe information

• The Social Learning Theory: learning is a cognitive process that takes place in social settings, learning can happen by observing behavior and change by observing the consequences of such behavior, learning can happen by reinforcement and punishment but that is not the foundation of learning, Reciprocal Determinism (a social-cognitive theory which argues that behavior, cognition, and environment all interact with and influence one another)

Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology:

Enduring Themes:

• Chroniclogical Order: birth to death

• Thematic Lenses: specfic focuses

Thematic Lenses:

• Stability vs. Change

• Nature vs. Nurture

• Continuious vs. Discontinuous

Design Methods:

• Longitudial study: same group observed at different periods of time

• Cross-sectional: different groups observed at the same time

Physical Development Across our Lifespan:

Factors That Can Imapct Birth:

• Maternal illness

• Teratogens (negative outside infulences that impact fetal development)

• Genetic Mutations

• Hormonal Factors

• Enviromental Factors

Childhood:

• Reflexes: rooting reflex (suckling when object enters the mouth)

• Motor development: Gross Motor Skills (universal order: roll, rock, crawl, walk, run) vs. Fine Motor Skills (detailed skills: not always taught at the same time/order)

Critial (happens or doesn’t) vs. Sensitive (can learn at anytime) Periods:

• Language

• Imprinting
  

Adolesence:

• Physical and Psychological Milestones: growth spurts, puberty, etc.

• Reproductive Ability Development: Menarche (girls first period) and spermarche

• Puberty: Primary: allow the ability to reproduce and Secondary: don’t allow the ability to reproduce

Adulthood:

• Steady-Decline

• Men and Women hard stop development at 25 (years)

• Order of decline: Reproductive ability (menopause), Mobility, Flexibility, Reaction time, Senses (vision/hearing)

Gender and Sexual Development:

• Sex (biological bases) vs. Gender (how you identify)

• Variations of Biological Terms (Intersex, Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome, Turner Syndrome, Klinefelter Syndrome)

• Gender Roles: Impacts development and stereotypes (effects marketing, identification, etc.)

• Gender Identity and Variations: Gender Non-Conforming, Androgyny, Transgender

• Sexual Orientation: LGBTQai+ (who you are sexual attracted to)

• Orgins of Sexual Orientation: genetics, prematal horomones, social influnces play a role in sexual orientation

Cognitive Development:

Jean Piaget and His Research:

• Jean Piaget studied stages of cognitive development (general)

• Schemas: an idea you have in your mind when given a concept

• Assimilation: same shemas

• Accomodation: changes shemas

• Sensorimotor Stage (1): All about your senses and how these help you learn

• Object Permanence: the awarness that objects continue to exist even when not percieved

• Preoperational Stage (2): mental symbols in toddlers through early adulthood

• Egocentrism: the inability to see the world through the perpective of another

• Animism: the belief that an inanimate object is alive/has lifelike characteristics

• Conservation: mass, volume, numbers stay the same desipte change in shape (comes naturally)

• Reversability: child’s ability to reverse a sequence of events in an orginal situation

• Theory of Mind: the ability to see others perspective

• Concrete Operational Stage (3): think about things more logically (earlythrough late childhood)

• Formal Operational Stage (4): hypothetical reasoning and abstract thinking (adults)

Lev Vygotsky and His Research:

• Lev Vygotsky studied stages of cognitive development (sociocultural)

• Scaffolding: pushing out of your comfort zone so you learn

• Zone of Proximal Development (rings): start: what the learner can do alone, second: what the learner can do with help, third: what the learner cannot do

• Adulthood: crystallized intelligence (things you know always) and fluid intelligence (thinks you know that deteriorate)

Lawrence Kohlberg and His Research:

• Lawrence Kohlberg studied Moral Development

• Preconvential: (late elementary) stage 1: punishment vs. reward and stage 2: intrumental relatvist

• Conventional: (adolescence through adulthood) stage 3: Good boy/nice girl and stage 4: Law & Order

• Postconventional: (15% of adults) Stage 5: social contract and stage 6: universal ethical

Social-Emotional Development:

Ecological Systems Theory:

Parenting Styles:

• Authoritarian: high expectations with low emotional support

• Authoritative: high expectations with high emotional support

• Permissive: low expectations with low emotional support

Attachment vs. Temperment:

• Attachment: bond between child and caretaker

• Temperment: emotional dispositon (wants mom over dad)

• Attachment Styles: secure attachment (clingy), insecure aviodant (doesnt care either way), insecure anxious (upset always from change), insecure disorganized (mixture of insecure aviodant and insecure anxious)

• Seperation Anxiety: normal regardless of attachment style

Research on Attachment:

• Rhesus monkeys

• Found physical touch is a key factor in bonding

Social Development:

• (Childhood) Parallel Play: playing with the same toys/activity but not playing with each other

• (Adolesance) Imaginary audience: beilef that you are constantly being focused on, Personal fable: a belief that ones uniqueness/invulnerability extends the social lifespan

• (Adulthood) Support and care: deeper bonds than coexsitance, Attachment: recieves and giving support and care deepens attchment to these social relationships

• Social Clock: the social norm sequence of life events according to society

• Emerging Adulthood: developmental stage where you learn and build your adulthood in ages 18-25

Stage Theory of Psychological Development:

• Argues what has the most developmental influnces on a child

• Each developmental stage has a conflict, where you end up creates the path you follow as you grow

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACES):

• Traumatic events that happened before age 18 that effect later life and developmental stages