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Hamilton – politics, stance on monetary policy (national bank, tariff, etc.)
Secretary of Treasury under Washington, pioneer of addressing budget issues and establishing credit, strong federalist (believed in strong central government and protecting the wealth of the country and its citizens), broad/loose interpretation of the constitution sinc eit held “implied powers”.
Believed that the country should have a National Bank to help fund the national debt (would be able to assume the state debt and organize the country’s finances, federal treasury would deposit surplus money), provided a mode for printing paper currency, sold stock in the bank to private citizens
Establishment of a National Bank Debate
North/South Issue: National bank would be more beneficial to Northern trade and commerce, less so to the common farmer of the south; different views, different economies.
Constitutionality: Federalists believed that since the bank would have a specific purpose that supports explicitly stated provisions in the constitution and would therefore be constitutional while the Democratic-Republicans (Jeffersonians) believed that the “necessary and proper clause” showed that the bank was unnecessary and unconstitutional.
Elastic Clause
Also known as the Necessary and Proper Clause, is a provision in the United States Constitution that grants Congress the power to make all laws 'necessary and proper' for carrying out its enumerated powers and other responsibilities of the federal government.
Bill of Rights (purpose)
Protects the rights of individuals from government interference through specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution are reserved to the states or the people.
Constitutional Convention and Issues
Drew up the Constitution of the United States, was stimulated by severe economic troubles (which produced radical political movements such as Shays Rebellion), urged on by a demand for a stronger central government, the convention met to amend the Articles of Confederation, later discarded the articles completely and began working on the constitution, Virginia plan (bicameral legislature with proportional state representation), New Jersey plan (equal representation in Congress)
Great Compromise
The Great Compromise was an agreement made among the delegates to the constitutional convention that the American government would have 2 houses in Congress: the senate where each state has 2 senators, and the House of Representatives where each state has a number of Representatives based on population.
Strengths of Articles of Confederation
Were a written agreement and the first constitution of the United States of America, authority to declare war and make peace, power to sign treaties, established system of weights and measures, power to manage Native Indian affairs, supported the Continental Army, encouraged coordination and cooperation between different states, Congress settled disputes between states, allowed formation of new states, postal service, admiralty courts, and coin money was established
Weaknesses of Articles of Confederation
There was only one vote per state, no power to regulate commerce or trade between the states, government did not have the independent power to tax, could not force the states to obey its laws, no national army or navy, no system of national courts, no executive branch, congress did not have the power to raise money, changes to the Articles required a unanimous vote
XYZ Affair
A diplomatic scandal between France and the United States caused by French officials trying to bribe American diplomats in 1797. When the scandal was exposed, anti-French sentiment rose in America, and as a result, the two nations became entangled in an undeclared naval known as the Quasi-War.
The press was critical of President John Adams and Congress for how the affair was handled, which led to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts. Virginia and Kentucky passed resolutions that said the laws were unconstitutional and that the states had a right to “nullify” the acts.
Virginia And Kentucky Resolutions
Written by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in secret, which challenged the Alien and Sedition Acts on the grounds that they went beyond the powers specifically granted to the federal government in the U.S. Constitution.
Such an extension of federal power was an encroachment on states’ rights. They brought the idea of nullification into play, meaning states could nullify federal law, or declare it unenforceable within their borders.
Alien and Sedition Acts
Four laws passed by the United States Congress in 1798 during the Presidency of John Adams and a time of anti-French sentiments resulting from the XYZ affair:
The Naturalization Act extended the residency period from 5 to 14 years for aliens seeking citizenship; was aimed at Irish and French immigrants who were often active in Republican politics.
The Alien Act allowed the expulsion of aliens deemed dangerous during peacetime.
The Alien Enemies Act allowed the expulsion or imprisonment of aliens deemed dangerous during wartime.
The Sedition Act provided for fines or imprisonment for individuals who criticized the government, Congress, or president in speech or print.
Washington’s Farewell Address
It did not concern foreign affairs; most of it was devoted to domestic problems. He stressed that we should stay away from permanent alliances with foreign countries; temporary alliances wouldn't be quite as dangerous, but they should be made only in "extraordinary emergencies". He also spoke against partisan bitterness. This document was rejected by the Jeffersonians, who favored the alliance with France.
John Marshall
American jurist and politician who served as the chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1801-1835), helped establish the practice of judicial review, traveled to France to bring an end to the attacks on American ships, his interpretations of the Constitution in cases such as Marbury versus Madison served to strengthen the power of the Court and the power of the federal government
Northwest Ordinance of 1785 (what did it establish)
Regulated land sales in the region north of the Ohio River, which came to be known as the Old Northwest. Land would be surveyed by the government and then sold in "sections: of a square mile (640 acres) at $1 per acre. In each township, one section would be set aside to provide funds for public education. The system promised to control and concentrate settlement and raise money for Congress. But settlers violated the rules by pressing westward before the surveys had been completed.
Northwest Ordinance of 1787 (what did it establish)
A measure of the Second Continental Congress, passed according to the Articles of Confederation, to provide for the orderly settlement and governance of the region north of the Ohio River. The ordinance provided for the eventual admission of states to the Union—ultimately Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin—prohibited slavery in the region, and reserved lands for Indians.
Northwest Ordinances of 1785 and 1787 (differentiate between the two)
Enacted by the U.S. Congress for the purpose of establishing orderly and equitable procedures for the settlement and political incorporation of the Northwest Territory
The Ordinance of 1785 provided for the scientific surveying of the territory’s lands and for a systematic subdivision of them in which land was to be subdivided according to a rectangular grid system.
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 laid the basis for the government of the Northwest Territory and for the admission of its constituent parts as states into the union. Each district was to be governed by a governor and judges appointed by Congress until it attained a population of 5,000 adult free males, at which time it would become a territory and could form its own representative legislature.
Jay Treaty
Was an agreement between the United States and Great Britain, signed in 1794, aimed at resolving lingering issues from the American Revolutionary War and stabilizing relations between the two nations. The treaty addressed matters such as British military presence in the Northwest Territory, trade disputes, and compensation for American shipowners whose vessels had been seized by the British.
Shays Rebellion
Rebellion led by Daniel Shays of farmers in western Massachusetts in 1786-1787, protesting mortgage foreclosures. It highlighted the need for a strong national government just as the call for the Constitutional Convention went out, swung many people around to the notion that a strong central gov. was needed, since the states failed to act, the states were too weak and couldn't even stop a farmer's revolt, revealed hypocrisy of the Revolution since the Revolution only replaced British wealthy elite with an American elite. Poor were still oppressed.
Role of Women after the War of Independence/American Revolution
During the war, women continued to help the war effort in important ways, such as maintaining their homes and communities, making military supplies, following the army, and even fighting in battle. After the war, they navigated and tried to influence what revolutionary ideals meant for them in their newly independent states and then new nation.
Democratic-Republicans/Jeffersonian Democratic Party
Supported states’ rights, a strict interpretation of the Constitution, and opposition to a strong central government, aristocracy, and elitism. The party was founded in opposition to the Federalist Party and was led by Thomas Jefferson. The party’s foreign policy preferred an alliance with France and was cautious toward any dealings with Great Britain. Manly supported by lower-class, Midwesterners, southerners, farmers, and rural Americans
Federalists
Advocates of a strong national government and a broad interpretation of powers granted to the Federal Government by the United States Constitution. Founded by Alexander Hamilton during the Presidency of George Washington and was made up of wealthy merchants, bankers, and landowners who benefited from centralized power.
Xenophobia
The fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners or of anything strange or foreign.
Related to the Alien and Sedition Acts, the acts fueled citizens’ beliefs and fears of threats from foreign nations concerning their new and growing nation. Fear was that immigrants flooding the US could cause government upheaval like in France during the French Revolution. Federalists exploited these fears to prevent immigrants from voting for democratic-republicans
Idea of Civic Virtue
Democracy depended on unselfish commitment of each citizen for the public good (republican motherhood, emphasized role of women)
Post Revolutionary Economy
Large tracts of land left by loyalists, development of industry since states were reluctant to rely on British imports, mostly agrarian-based economy throughout the states, most goods were manufactured in homes, Americans began to smuggle goods out of the West Indies, high rates of inflation were caused by the over-printing of continental dollars
Continental Congress Major debates
Representation – How would officials be elected?
How many representatives per state?
Same number for each state? Proportional representation?
How to count slaves?
Supreme powers
Most people felt that the government could not share power between the legislative and executive branch
Idea of separation of powers was not seriously considered
Foreign Affairs (1780s)
Border issues on the frontier with GB and Spain, Great Britain refused to leave military forts/posts on the frontier, Spanish still maintained presence in Florida due to their colonial claims in North America, US no longer had British naval protection or union affiliation, British policy stunted the growth of US industry as their biggest trading partner refused to buy US products and exports
Federalists vs. Antifederalists
Federalists were those who favored the Constitution and wanted a strong central government. Anti Federalists (later the democratic-republicans) wanted a weak central government and more power to the people and opposed the ratification of the Constitution.
Federalist Papers Significance
A set of essays written for the newspaper containing commentary on the Constitution. Were originally designed as propaganda to urge the ratification of the Constitution. They also influenced Anti-Federalists to favor the Federalist party for it addressed all their oppositions.
Property Qualifications
Requirements for voting based on property ownership. Rejected by the states since the right to vote was viewed as a privilege that all citizens should have a right to.
Republican Motherhood
The idea that a responsible, well educated mother educates and raises her sons to become good political leaders
George Washington
Was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army in 1775 and led American forces to victory against the British at key battles like Trenton and Yorktown, presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787 where he played an essential role in shaping the Constitution and addressing issues like representation and federal power, voluntarily stepped down after two terms as president and established tradition that presidents would serve no more than two terms, leadership style emphasized unity and moderation which were crucial in navigating the early challenges of the new republic, Farewell Address warned against political parties and foreign alliances, influencing American political thought for generations.
French Revolution
A social and political revolution in France that toppled the monarchy; created a dilemma for the United States between helping the crown or the people, chose neutrality in the matter
John Adams
He was the second president of the United States and a Federalist. He was responsible for passing the Alien and Sedition Acts. Prevented all out war with France after the XYZ Affair. His passing of the Alien and Sedition Acts, which severely hurt the popularity of the Federalist party and himself
Haitian Revolution/Independence Movement
1789-1804, Washington, Adams, Jefferson; First successful slave revolt; led to more slave revolts because of hope of success now that there was an example; hurt France financially; gave Haiti freedom, spread fear of slave rebellion, first free slave nation in the western hemisphere, ended Napoleon's dream of an American empire which led to him selling the Louisiana land to the Americans
Latin American Revolutions
The Latin American Revolutions were a series of uprisings and movements that occurred in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, leading to the independence of various Latin American countries from Spanish and Portuguese colonial rule. These revolutions were heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideals, including liberty, equality, and the rights of individuals, resulting in the establishment of independent nations across the continent.
Alexander Hamilton
First Secretary of the Treasury. He advocated creation of a national bank, assumption of state debts by the federal government, and a tariff system to pay off the national debt.
Whiskey Rebellion
Protests in 1794 by PA farmers resisting payment of a federal tax on whiskey; forcibly repressed when Washington called an army of 15,000 troops into the area (no resistance), legitimized the strength of the government and the executive branch (more respect for this govt. than the articles)
Development of Political Parties
Born out of a personal feud between Hamilton and Jefferson, Washington considered political parties detrimental to govt. due to idea of “dangerous factions” developing as a result of their presence, Washington appointed Hamilton and Jefferson knowing that the two disagreed on many issues so that he would hear 2 different perspectives before making decisions, Jefferson organized opposition to people supporting Hamilton’s agenda, Originally acted as another check on governmental power at the federal level, but parties would have an immediate divisive political impact
Neutrality Proclamation of 1792
Washington kept America out of foreign wars; didn't pick a side in European wars- protected the American economy, US would be impartial to both Britain and France- wouldn't join in French revolution, foreshadowed points Washington used in his farewell address, beginning of US's isolation vs. involvement 'dance', they were very weak- avoiding conflict because they can't afford it in the two senses of it, basis of American foreign policy
Genet Affair
The Citizen Genêt Affair (also known as the French Neutrality Crisis) was a diplomatic incident between France and the United States that took place from 1793–1794 beginning when the French appealed to the United States for support in their war with Britain and sent Edmond Charles Genêt to America to negotiate who started by gathering American citizens to volunteer to help France fight Britain and Spain upon arrival in America. Washington responded by issuing the Proclamation of Neutrality. Soon after, Genêt defied Washington and sent a ship out of Philadelphia to attack British ships. Washington and his cabinet responded by asking the French Government to recall Genêt and send a new Ambassador. The French agreed, sent a replacement, but accused Genêt of treason. Genêt asked for political asylum in America, which was granted, and he spent the rest of his life living in New York. The affair deepened the divide between political parties in the United States but also led the government to define its policy regarding neutrality and the passage of the Neutrality Act of 1794.
The Jay Treaty
Was made up by John Jay. It said that Britain was to pay for Americans ships that were seized in 1793. It said that Americans had to pay British merchants debts owed from before the revolution and Britain had agreed to remove their troops from the Ohio Valley.
Pickney’s Treaty/Treaty of San Lorenzo
Treaty between the U.S. and Spain which gave the U.S. the right to transport goods on the Mississippi River and to store goods in the Spanish port of New Orleans, defined US and Spanish borders; expansion across boundaries, foreshadows how US wants to keep spreading
Treaty of Greenville
Gave America all of Ohio after General Mad Anthony Wayne battled and defeated the Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. 1795 Allowed Americans to explore the area with peace of mind that the land belonged to America and added size and very fertile land to America.
Revolution of 1800
Jefferson's election changed the direction of the government from Federalist to Democratic- Republican, so it was called a peaceful "revolution"
Marbury v. Madison
1803 Supreme Court case that established the U.S. Supreme Court as the final judge of the constitutionality of congressional actions
Nullification
The federalist party had passed the alien and sedition acts to regulate the strong opinions of the republicans. These laws violated the freedoms of the first amendment granted to the people, and prosecuted them for speaking out. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison protested the laws by writing the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, which asked the states to declare the laws null. They thought that "nullification was the rightful remedy". Virginia and Kentucky were the only states that voted for this nullification, which is to make a law invalid.
Bank of the United States
Established as a joint public and private venture in 1791 at the behest of Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton, served as a depository of government funds, collected and expended government revenue, and issued notes to serve as a national medium of exchange. The bank’s charter expired in 1811. A Second Bank of the United States was chartered in 1816.
Electoral College
An assembly of delegates representing each state who choose the president of the United States. This mechanism, established in the Constitution, was regarded as less volatile than allowing voters to elect the president directly.
French Revolution
The massive and violent social and political upheaval commencing in 1789 that ended the French monarchy, established a republic, expropriated the land and property of the Catholic Church, and culminated in a bloody Reign of Terror.
Jeffersonian democracy
A political theory that enshrined small independent farmers, distrusted bankers and merchants, deplored big government, and insisted that political power should rest with the people (except slaves, women, and some others).
Judiciary Act of 1801
Created six new federal circuit courts, presided over by sixteen new federal judges and an accompanying army of attorneys, marshals, and clerks. The expanding country needed judges, but with the enthusiastic cooperation of President Adams, the Federalists made shameless use of the opportunity to fill all new positions with conservative members of their own party before Jefferson assumed the presidency. The new appointees were dubbed “midnight justices” because Adams had stayed up until midnight on March 3, his last day as president, feverishly signing their commissions.
Judiciary Act of 1789
It organized the Supreme Court, originally with five justices and a chief justice, along with several federal district and circuit courts. It also created the attorney general's office. This Act created the judiciary branch of the U.S. government.
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