Gender - AO3

Androgyny and the BSRI - BSRI seems to be valid and reliable measure of r(strength)

P: One strength of the BSRI is that it appears to be a valid and reliable measure of androgyny.

E It was developed using a rigorous process, involving a large sample and ratings from independent judges to ensure the traits selected were representative of societal gender norms. Additionally, the BSRI was tested on over 1000 students, with findings aligning with participants’ own gender identity descriptions. A follow-up study also demonstrated high test-retest reliability, indicating the scale produces consistent results over time.

C: This supports the idea that the BSRI provides a consistent and valid measure of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny.

H: While the BSRI may be reliable, its validity as a true measure of androgyny can be questioned. It was developed in the 1970s, meaning its definition of masculinity and femininity may be outdated and culturally biased. Social attitudes towards gender have evolved significantly, making some of the traits used in the scale less relevant today.

I/D – CULTURAL BIAS: The BSRI was designed based on Western gender norms, which may not generalize across different cultures. Gender roles and expectations vary widely, meaning what is considered masculine or feminine in one society may not be the same elsewhere. This limits the scale’s universality and applicability beyond Western contexts.

Androgyny and the BSRI - Androgyny doesn’t necessarily lead to better psychological well-being - patriarchal society (limitation)

P: One limitation of Bem’s research is the assumption that androgyny leads to better psychological well-being.

E: Bem argued that androgynous individuals are more adaptable and better able to handle various social situations. However, Adams and Sherer (1985) suggested that individuals who display a greater proportion of masculine traits are more highly valued in a patriarchal society, meaning psychological well-being might be linked to masculine traits rather than androgyny.

C: This challenges Bem’s view, as it indicates that being androgynous might not necessarily result in better psychological health if society values masculine traits more.

H: However, while masculine traits may be more valued in society, it is possible that being able to switch between masculine, feminine, or androgynous traits still contributes positively to psychological well-being, suggesting that the adaptability Bem described might still be beneficial in certain contexts.

I/D: Nomothetic vs Idiographic

Bem’s research assumes a general principle that androgyny improves psychological well-being. However, the impact of androgyny may vary depending on specific social contexts, such as at work or at home, where expectations about gender roles differ. This points to the importance of an idiographic approach, focusing on individual differences in social environments rather than applying one-size-fits-all conclusions, as the nomothetic approach does.

Role of chromosomes - feminist criticism of the concept of pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS) is that it reinforces stereotypes about women’s emotions and experiences (limitation)

P: One criticism of the concept of pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS) is that it reinforces stereotypes about women’s emotions and experiences.

E: Feminist critics, such as Rodin (1992), argue that PMS is a social construct rather than a biological fact. They suggest that the medicalization of PMS reflects societal attempts to control and marginalize women’s emotional and physical states by attributing them to hormonal fluctuations, instead of viewing them as valid emotional experiences.

C: This critique suggests that PMS may be used to invalidate women’s emotions, especially anger, by framing them as a biological issue, thus undermining the legitimacy of their feelings.

H: However, some research into PMS and the role of oestrogen levels does support a biological basis for mood changes in women, which cannot be entirely dismissed. Studies indicating hormonal influence may offer important insights into how biology impacts mood and behaviour, potentially aiding women in understanding their emotional experiences.

I/D – GENDER BIAS: The debate surrounding PMS highlights gender bias in psychological and medical research. Critics argue that by framing women’s emotional experiences as medical conditions, it reinforces gendered stereotypes about women being overly emotional or irrational, further marginalizing their lived experiences. This raises concerns about how gender bias shapes both research and societal perceptions of women.

Role of chromosomes - The case of David Reimer highlights the complex interaction between nature and nurture in gender identity development (strength)

P: The case of David Reimer highlights the complex interaction between nature and nurture in gender identity development.

E: Initially raised as a girl after a botched circumcision, David Reimer (formerly Bruce) struggled with the gender identity imposed by his upbringing. Despite efforts by psychologist John Money to nurture him as a girl, David rejected this identity, eventually transitioning back to male as a teenager. This case suggests that biological factors, such as chromosomes and hormones, may play a stronger role than social upbringing in determining gender identity.

C: The case of David Reimer supports the idea that biological factors, including genetic and hormonal influences, are crucial in the formation of gender identity, outweighing the potential impact of socialization.

H: However, while this case supports the role of biological factors, it cannot be used to dismiss the influence of socialization entirely. Some argue that early social experiences, family dynamics, and cultural expectations could still play a significant role in shaping one’s gender identity.

I/D – NATURE VS NURTURE: The case highlights the ongoing debate between nature and nurture in determining gender identity. David's experience suggests that biological factors (nature) might be dominant in the development of gender identity, yet the case also raises questions about the potential influence of socialization (nurture) in the earlier part of his life, suggesting the issue is more complex than either factor alone.

Atypical Chromosome Patterns - environmental and social factors, rather than chromosomal abnormalities, may account for observed behavioural differences (limitation)

P: A limitation of chromosomal explanations for conditions like Klinefelter’s and Turner’s syndromes is the possibility that environmental and social factors, rather than chromosomal abnormalities, may account for observed behavioural differences.

E: For example, females with Turner’s syndrome often display social immaturity, which may be influenced by how others treat them due to their pre-pubertal appearance. The way parents and teachers react to these individuals could contribute to their immaturity and impact their behaviour and performance in social and academic settings.

C: This suggests that environmental factors, such as how people with these syndromes are treated, may play a significant role in shaping their behaviour, challenging the assumption that biological factors alone account for psychological differences.

H: However, it remains unclear whether these environmental influences interact with genetic factors to cause the observed behavioural differences, making it difficult to disentangle the contributions of both nature and nurture.

I/D – NATURE VS. NURTURE: The case of Turner’s syndrome highlights the ongoing debate between nature and nurture. While biological factors may predispose individuals to certain behaviours, environmental influences, such as social treatment, can significantly alter or exacerbate these behaviours.

Atypical Chromosome Patterns - practical application, treatment and diagnosis-wise (strength)

P: A strength of research into atypical sex chromosome patterns is its potential practical application, particularly in improving diagnoses and treatment outcomes for conditions like Turner’s and Klinefelter’s syndromes.

E: For example, an Australian study by Herlihy et al. (2011) found that individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome who were diagnosed and treated from a young age had significantly better outcomes compared to those diagnosed in adulthood.

C: This suggests that early identification and intervention can have substantial benefits, underlining the importance of continued research in this area.

H: However, while early diagnosis may improve outcomes, there are concerns that focusing too much on medical treatments could lead to the pathologisation of individuals, reducing their experiences to their chromosomal abnormalities rather than addressing the full range of factors influencing their lives.

I/D – REDUCTIONISM VS. HOLISM: The emphasis on early medical intervention may be seen as reductionist, as it focuses on the biological aspect of the condition without fully considering the broader social and psychological context that also shapes the individual’s experience and well-being.

Kohlberg - does not account for children demonstrating gender-appropriate behavior before achieving gender constancy (limitation)

P: One limitation of Kohlberg’s theory is that it does not account for children demonstrating gender-appropriate behavior before achieving gender constancy.

E: Bussey and Bandura (1992) found that children as young as 4 reported feeling “good” about playing with gender-appropriate toys and “bad” about playing with toys of the opposite gender, suggesting that children can develop gendered preferences earlier than Kohlberg’s theory predicts.

C: This contradicts Kohlberg’s view that gender-appropriate behavior only emerges after gender constancy is achieved. It suggests that children’s awareness of gender roles may develop earlier than the theory suggests.

H: However, Kohlberg's theory could still be valid in terms of the stages of cognitive development, and children may simply be influenced by external factors such as social reinforcement before achieving full gender constancy.

I/D – DETERMINISM VERSUS FREE WILL: This issue highlights the debate between whether children's gender-appropriate behavior is determined by biological processes and cognitive development, as Kohlberg suggests, or whether external social influences play a larger role in shaping behavior, as seen in Bussey and Bandura's findings.

Kohlberg - evidence showing that children in the gender constancy stage actively seek gender-appropriate models (strength)

P: A strength is from evidence showing that children in the gender constancy stage actively seek gender-appropriate models.

E: Slaby & Frey (1975) found that children in the gender constancy stage spent more time looking at models of the same sex, indicating that they were more likely to engage with gender-appropriate behavior. Additionally, Munroe et al. (1984) found cross-cultural evidence in countries such as Kenya, Samoa, and Nepal, supporting Kohlberg’s theory.

C: These findings suggest that children’s behavior in the constancy stage is consistent with Kohlberg’s predictions, and the cross-cultural evidence implies that the sequence of stages may be universal.

H: However, while the stages appear to be universal, there are cultural differences in how gender roles are expressed, which may challenge the notion that the sequence of stages is universally applicable across all societies.

I/D – CULTURAL BIAS: Kohlberg’s theory may not fully account for cultural variations in gender development. While the stages might apply to many societies, they may not accurately reflect gender socialization practices in all cultures, particularly those with non-Western gender norms.

Gender Schema Theory - it is supported by evidence showing that children are more likely to remember gender-consistent behavior than gender-inconsistent behavior (strength)

P: One strength of gender schema theory is that it is supported by evidence showing that children are more likely to remember gender-consistent behavior than gender-inconsistent behavior.

E: Martin & Halverson (1983) found that children under the age of six were more likely to recall photographs of gender-consistent behavior than gender-inconsistent behavior when tested a week later. Additionally, they tended to change the sex of the person performing the gender-inconsistent activity when asked to recall it.

C: This supports the idea that children’s memory is distorted to align with their existing gender schemas, which is a central tenet of gender schema theory.

H: However, while this evidence supports gender schema theory, it doesn't explain how children form these schemas in the first place. Some aspects of gender development might still be better explained by other theories, such as Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory.

I/D – REDUCTIONISM VERSUS HOLISM: Gender schema theory might be seen as reductionist because it focuses heavily on cognitive structures and memory while overlooking other factors, such as emotional or social influences, that might also play a role in the development of gendered behavior. This limits its ability to provide a fully holistic explanation.

Gender Schema Theory - its key assumption, that children’s behavior can be changed by altering their schemas or stereotypes, is not supported by evidence (limitation)

P: One limitation of gender schema theory is that its key assumption, that children’s behavior can be changed by altering their schemas or stereotypes, is not supported by evidence.

E: The theory assumes that by changing children’s gender schemas, their behaviors can also change. However, research by Kane and Sanchez (1994) found that many married couples who strongly believed in gender equality and equal division of labor in the home still did not alter their behavior accordingly.

C: This suggests that changing beliefs or schemas does not necessarily lead to corresponding changes in behavior, which challenges a fundamental assumption of gender schema theory.

H: However, while this may be true in the context of adults, it is possible that children’s behavior could be more malleable, and the failure to change behavior in adults may not be directly applicable to children in the context of gender schema theory.

I/D – DETERMINISM VERSUS FREE WILL: The assumption that behavior can be easily altered through changing gender schemas implies a level of determinism. It overlooks the potential role of free will and individual agency in shaping gendered behavior, which may vary across contexts and individuals.

Psychodynamic - offers an inadequate account of female development (limitation)

P: One limitation of Freud’s theory is that it offers an inadequate account of female development.

E: Freud’s theory primarily focuses on male development, with little attention given to the parallel process in females. Freud's concept of penis envy has been heavily criticized for reflecting the patriarchal context of the time, and he admitted that women were a mystery to him. Feminist psychoanalyst Karen Horney argued that the experience of ‘womb envy’—a male reaction to women’s ability to bear and nurture life—was more powerful than penis envy. Horney contended that penis envy was not an inherent female trait but a cultural concept.

C: This critique undermines Freud’s theory by highlighting the androcentric nature of his model, where female development is seen as incomplete or inferior, based on a desire to emulate male traits.

H: However, his theory was one of the first to offer a detailed explanation of gender development. His idea that gender identity is shaped through early family relationships and unconscious conflict (like the Oedipus complex) was groundbreaking at the time. Even though parts of the theory are outdated, it helped shape later thinking about how gender identity forms in childhood.

I/D – GENDER BIAS: Freud's theory has been criticized for being gender-biased, as it assumes that female development is defined by an incomplete or flawed pursuit of male traits, reflecting an androcentric worldview. This issue leads to an inadequate understanding of female identity and development, overlooking the importance of women's experiences and contributions.

Psychodynamic - research does not support the idea that harsh fathers lead to a stronger sense of gender identity in their sons. (limitation)

P: One limitation of Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex is that research does not support the idea that harsh fathers lead to a stronger sense of gender identity in their sons.

E: Freud’s theory suggests that boys with punitive and harsh fathers develop a stronger gender identity due to higher anxiety and fear of castration. However, Blakemore & Hill (2008) found the opposite, showing that boys with more liberal fathers tend to have a more secure masculine identity.

C: This contradicts Freud’s idea that fear of castration strengthens identification with the father and, by extension, a stronger gender identity, undermining the validity of the Oedipus complex as a psychodynamic explanation.

H: However, this may not rule out Freud's broader theory entirely. It is possible that different dynamics within families, such as the mother’s influence or the presence of other familial relationships, play a larger role in gender identity formation than the strict father-son relationship proposed by Freud.

I/D – IDEOGRAPHIC VS NOMOTHETIC - Freud used case studies, like Little Hans, to study the Oedipus Complex. He took an ideographic approach which may explain why his findings lack validity because he attempted to generalise his theory of an Oedipus complex based on small samples to the wider population. Also made subjective interpretations.

Social Learning Theory - over-relies on social influences, neglecting the role of biology in gender development (limitation)

P: A limitation of social learning theory (SLT) is its over-reliance on social influences, neglecting the role of biology in gender development.

E: SLT emphasizes environmental factors, such as reinforcement and socialization, in shaping gender behavior, and largely ignores genetic or chromosomal influences. For example, the case of David Reimer demonstrated that biological factors, such as chromosomes, could not be overridden by socialization, highlighting the importance of innate biological influences in gender development.

C: This limitation suggests that SLT may provide an incomplete explanation of gender development, as it does not sufficiently account for the biological aspects that influence gender identity.

H: However, modern theories, such as the biosocial theory of gender, offer a more balanced view by recognizing both biological differences and the role of social interaction in shaping gender. This approach acknowledges that while biology plays a significant role, social influences can either reinforce or modify biological predispositions.

I/D – REDUCTIONISM VS. HOLISM: The issue here is reductionism versus holism. SLT can be seen as reductionist because it focuses narrowly on environmental factors while ignoring the complexity of biological and other factors in gender development. In contrast, more holistic approaches, such as the biosocial theory, offer a more integrated perspective by considering both social and biological influences.

Social Learning Theory - supporting evidence (strength)

P: One strength of the theory is the supporting evidence for the role of social learning in gender development.

E: Smith and Lloyd (1978) conducted an experiment where 4-6 month-old babies were dressed in either boys’ or girls’ clothes, regardless of their actual sex. The babies dressed as boys were given a hammer-shaped rattle and encouraged to be active, while those dressed as girls were given a cuddly doll and praised for being passive and pretty. This suggests that children are socialized into gender-appropriate behavior through the reinforcement of gendered activities and characteristics by adults.

C: This provides strong support for the social learning theory, which suggests that gender behavior is learned through reinforcement, modeling, and observational learning from early interactions.

H: However, a limitation of the study is that it was conducted in a controlled laboratory setting.
While this allowed researchers to carefully manipulate perceived gender, it may not reflect how adults naturally interact with infants in everyday life. This reduces the ecological validity of the findings and limits how well they generalize to real-world gender socialization.

I/D – ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS - However, there are ethical concerns with this research. The study involved deceiving parents and using very young infants who could not give consent, which raises issues around informed consent and protection from harm. Although the babies were unlikely to experience long-term effects, manipulating how adults treated them based on clothing could have short-term impacts on how they were perceived and responded to.

Influence of Culture and Media - imposed etic (limitation)

P: One limitation of cross-cultural research is the issue of imposed etic, where researchers apply their own cultural perspectives to understand the behaviors of indigenous populations.

E: Cross-cultural research is often conducted by Western researchers who may unintentionally impose their own cultural assumptions and methods on the populations they study. This is particularly problematic because theories and research methods developed in the West may not be universally applicable to other cultures. Berry (2002) discusses this issue and suggests that having at least one local member on the research team can help mitigate the risk of imposing Western perspectives.

C: This highlights the limitation of using Western-developed theories and methods in cross-cultural research, as they may fail to accurately represent or understand the behaviors and practices of non-Western cultures.

H: However, it can be argued that some Western methods and frameworks have been successfully applied in cross-cultural contexts when adapted appropriately. This suggests that with careful consideration, the imposition of Western cultural norms can be minimized, making cross-cultural research more valid and reliable.

I/D – CULTURAL BIAS: The issue of imposed etic relates to cultural bias. When researchers apply Western theories and methods universally, they may overlook or misinterpret behaviors that are culturally specific, which limits the generalizability and validity of cross-cultural studies.

Influence of Culture and Media - In recent years, some media have challenged traditional gender stereotypes, but the effects on children’s attitudes are mixed. (strength and limitation)

P: In recent years, some media have challenged traditional gender stereotypes, but the effects on children’s attitudes are mixed.

E: Pingree (1978) found that children’s gender stereotypes were reduced after viewing adverts with women in non-traditional roles. However, pre-adolescent boys actually strengthened their gender stereotypes after exposure, possibly as a backlash to maintain traditional views.

C: This suggests that media influence on gender roles is complex and may differ by gender, with boys resisting changes more strongly than girls.

H: However, Pingree used a lab set up and self-report measures - please u vs screw u effects - girls and boys responded to DCs with girls wanting to please researcher because thought they were expected to show less stereotypical views after exposure and pre-pubescent boys doing screw u effect - deliberately held rigid stereotypes to sabotage results - lowers internal validity.

I/D: This relates to the nomothetic vs idiographic debate because the nomothetic approach looks for general laws about gender development, but the idiographic perspective emphasizes individual differences and context —like peer groups and how boys and girls respond differently in various social settings, such as at home or school. Understanding these nuances highlights the limits of applying broad generalizations to gender socialization.

Gender Dysphoria - contradictory evidence for the claim that BSTC differences cause gender dysphoria (limitation)

P: One limitation of the claim that BSTc differences cause gender dysphoria is that there is contradictory evidence.

E: Hulshoff Pol et al. (2006) found that hormone therapy used in gender transition can alter the size of the BSTc, meaning that observed differences may be the result of treatment rather than an innate cause of gender dysphoria. Additionally, Chung et al. (2002) argued that while prenatal hormones may influence brain development, structural changes in the BSTc might not appear until adulthood, challenging the idea that these differences are present from birth.

C: These findings suggest that BSTc differences may not be a biological cause of gender dysphoria, but instead a consequence of hormone therapy or later brain development.

H: Despite this, the role of biological factors in gender dysphoria cannot be completely dismissed, as other research suggests prenatal hormones still play a role in shaping gender identity.

I/D: Reductionism – The claim that BSTc size differences explain gender dysphoria is biologically reductionist, as it oversimplifies a complex condition by focusing solely on brain structures while ignoring psychological and social influences.

Gender Dysphoria cognitive theroies are descriptive, rather than explanatory (limitation)

P: A limitation of cognitive theories of gender dysphoria (GD) is that they are descriptive, rather than explanatory.

E: Liben and Bigler’s theory describes how gender development occurs but fails to explain why it happens. Specifically, it does not account for why some children become interested in activities inconsistent with their sex or how these activities lead to the formation of non-sex-typed schemas.

C: This means that cognitive theories may lack depth in understanding the underlying causes of GD, making them less useful in fully explaining gender development.

H: However, biological explanations, such as brain structure differences or prenatal hormone exposure, offer potential causal mechanisms for GD, making them more comprehensive in addressing why it occurs.

I/D: Nature vs. Nurture – Cognitive theories emphasize the role of thought processes and learned schemas (nurture) but overlook biological influences (nature), which may be crucial in explaining GD.