MODULE 6: HISTORICAL NOTES ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and definitions from the lecture notes on the history and development of the English language.

Old English

The Germanic language spoken in Britain roughly 450–1066, with a highly inflected grammar; key texts include Beowulf, Caedmon’s Hymn, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; written first in runes, later in the Roman alphabet after Christianisation.

Beowulf

One of the major Old English literary works, part of the OE corpus.

Caedmon’s Hymn

An early Old English poem; part of the OE corpus and the Lindisfarne manuscript tradition.

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

A principal Old English prose collection documenting early English history.

Runic alphabet

The earliest writing system used by northern European peoples, later replaced by the Roman alphabet during Christianisation.

Latin influence on OE

Latin loanwords entered Old English during Christianisation, enriching religious and secular vocabulary (e.g., ceaster/caster from castra; maesse, munuc, alter, etc.).

ceaster / caster

Latin-derived endings in place names from castra; examples include Manchester, Chester.

Grimm’s Law

First Germanic sound shift (around the first millennium BC): IE p becomes f in Germanic languages.

Proto-Germanic

The common ancestor of the Germanic languages, spoken around the Elbe region about 3,000 years ago.

West Germanic

Subgroup of the Indo-European family; ancestor of English and other West Germanic languages.

Angles, Saxons, and Jutes

Germanic tribes that settled in Britain (5th–7th century), forming the basis of Old English.

Norse influence / Viking contact

Norse (North Germanic) contact during 8th–11th centuries brought loanwords and Norse-derived place names into English.

-by, -thorpe, -kirk

Norse place-name endings that survived in England (e.g., Grimsby, Kirkby, Darby) and reflected settlement patterns.

Old English word order

OE had flexible word order (SVO, VSO, SOV) due to rich inflection; later shifts reduced inflectional endings.

Kennings

Figurative, compound expressions in OE poetry (e.g., whale-road for sea) used for stylistic effect.

Middle English

Period 1066–1500; after the Norman Conquest, English absorbed substantial French influence; printing begins in 1476 and standardisation increases.

Norman Conquest

Invasion of England in 1066 that introduced extensive French influence into English vocabulary and culture.

Anglo-Norman loanwords

French/Latin-derived terms entering English during the Middle English period, including many abstract terms with new French affixes.

Chancery Standard

A regional standard that became the basis for Modern Standard English; promoted by East Midlands/London standardisation and Caxton’s adoption.

Caxton

William Caxton, the first English printer (circa 1476); his press helped standardise English and legitimize it as a language of learning.

Inkhorn terms

Renaissance debate over elaborate Latin/French loanwords; term used for such neologisms and the related prescriptive response.

High Middle Ages (French influence)

Period roughly 814–1300 with strong French influence in vocabulary and culture; events like the Hundred Years War and the Black Death impacted language.

Great Vowel Shift

A major sound change (c. 1400–1750) redefining long vowels, contributing to the divergence of Middle and Modern English.

Early Modern English (EME)

Period 1500–1700/1800 marked by Renaissance influence, Bible translations, Shakespeare, and expanding lexicon from Latin/Greek.

Shakespeare

Major Early Modern English writer; his era contributed many neologisms and standardised spellings through print and publication.

Renaissance loanwords

Borrowings from Latin and Greek (often via Latin) during the 16th century, enriching science, philosophy, and culture.

Johnson’s Dictionary

Samuel Johnson’s 1755 dictionary (later revised) that codified English usage and expanded lexical authority.

Negation and questions in EME

Shift toward analytic structures: increased use of auxiliary verbs; inversion for questions and loss of some old inflections.

Late Modern English (LME)

Period from 1800 to the present; industrial revolution, globalisation, and the rise of American English and ELF influence.

OED (Oxford English Dictionary)

A comprehensive, historical dictionary (originally multi-volume; 1882–1928; later editions) documenting etymologies and quotations.

ELF / Cultural imperialism

English as a Lingua Franca used worldwide; expansion and cultural influence of English, especially post-colonial and global contexts.

Lexical expansion (world loanwords)

English has borrowed heavily from languages around the world due to imperialism, trade, and contact (e.g., French, Italian, etc.).

Neologisms

New words created by blends, affixation, compounding, and initialisms (e.g., Brexit, Euroskeptic, netrepreneur; crowd-sourcing).

Affixation and suffixes (examples)

Word formation via prefixes and suffixes (e.g., -ee; -ise/-ize) creating new nouns, verbs, or adjectives.

lexical examples from Italian

Loanwords from Italian such as ballet, cappuccino, graffiti, etc., illustrating cross-cultural influence in LME.