AP Psychology: Unit 2 - Cognition

based on the new ap psych ced

concepts

mental categories that help us organize and understand the world

prototypes

mental representation of an object or concept that people use to categorize things

schemas

more complex mental frameworks that organize and interpret information about the world

assimilation

fitting new info into existing schemas

accommodation

changing a schema to incorporate new info

algorithms

tackling a problem step-by-step in a systematic way

heuristics

mental shortcuts based on past experiences

representativeness heuristic

making judgements based on how much something resembles or represents a typical case or stereotype

availability heuristic

making judgements based on how easily examples come to mind

mental set

cognitive framework that relies on past experiences and successful strategies to solve new problems

priming

phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus influences how we respond to a later stimulus

framing

how info is presented, which can shape how we interpret and react to it, often influencing our decisions and judgements

gambler’s fallacy

mistaken belief that if an event occurs more frequently than normal, during a given period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa

sunk-cost fallacy

tendency to continue to pursue an action in which you’ve already invested money, time, or resources into, regardless of its future value

executive functions

cognitive processes that help individuals generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors, as well as engage in critical thinking

creativity

when we create new original ideas and solutions

divergent thinking

when a person explores many possible solutions, expanding the range of options for solving a problem

convergent thinking

narrowing down possibilities to identify the single best solution

functional fixedness

limits a person to using an object only in its traditional way

memory

info that persists over time, acquired through various experiences, and can be stored and retrieved later

explicit memory

info that we consciously recall, requiring effort and thought

episodic memory

relates to personal experiences or events

semantic memory

involves knowledge, facts, and general info

implicit memory

info or skills we learn without being fully aware of it

procedural memory

helps recall how to perform tasks, such as motor skills and routines

prospective memory

remembering to perform future actions, like recalling to take medication at a specific time or attending a meeting next week

long-term potentiation

strengthens synaptic connections between neurons in the brain through repeated activation

working memory model

explains how our primary memory system, known as working memory, processes and temporarily holds info for cognitive tasks

working memory

brief, immediate memory for the limited amount of material that you are currently processing

central executive

acts as control center of working memory

phonological loop

deals with verbal and auditory info

visuospatial sketchpad

handles visual and spatial info, allowing us to visualize objects and their locations

multi-store model

explains how info is processed, stored, and retrieved, focusing on three key systems that info must pass through if it’s going to be remembered

sensory memory

consists of our iconic (👁) and echoic (👂) memory

iconic memory

visual sensory memory that only lasts for a fraction of a second

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory that lasts between one to four seconds

short-term memory

can only hold a limited amount of info for a short period of time

long-term memory

ability to store and recall information over a long period of time

automatic processing

the unconscious processing of information without effort

effortful processing

process of encoding information through conscious effort and attention

encoding

processes of moving info from working memory to long-term memory

storage

process of holding or retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

when we access info stored in our memory

levels of processing model (shallow to deep)

memory is encoded on 3 levels

structural processing

• most superficial level

• focus is on physical appearance/structure of the info (what a word looks like)

phonemic processing

• deeper level

• focus is on how the info sounds (how a word is pronounced) // phonemes

semantic processing

• deepest level

• focus is on the meaning of the info // morphemes

mnemonic devices

help people remember info more easily by organizing it in a way that’s easier to recall (acronyms, visual images, rhymes, associations)

method of loci

helps you remember info by associating it with specific locations in a familiar setting

chunking

grouping individual pieces of info into larger, more manageable units

categorization

sorting objects, people, or concepts into groups based on shared characteristics

hierarchy

structure in which elements are ranked or organized in order of importance or level

spacing effect

the finding that long-term memory is enhanced when learning events are spaced apart in time, rather than massed in immediate succession

memory consolidation

process by which the brain transforms new memories into long-term memories

massed practice

learning technique where a person practices a skill or learns information in a single session or short time frame with little to no rest

distributed practice

learning technique where practice is spread out over time with rest periods between sessions

serial position effect

psychological theory that explains how the order of information affects how well people can recall it

primacy effect

tendency to better remember the first piece of information they encounter than the information they receive later on

recency effect

cognitive bias in which those items, ideas, or arguments that came last are remembered more clearly than those that came first

rehearsal

cognitive process that involves repeating information to learn and remember it

maintenance rehearsal

repetition of information for the immediate and temporary recall of information

elaborative rehearsal

memory technique that involves making connections between new information and what you already know

superior autobiographical memory

rare condition that allows people to recall details of their past with exceptional accuracy and vividness

autobiographical memory

memory system that combines personal experiences and general knowledge to create a coherent personal narrative

retrograde amnesia

inability to recall events, information, or experiences that occurred before the onset of the amnesia

anterograde amnesia

type of memory loss that occurs when you can't form new memories

alzheimer’s disease

brain disorder that affects memory, thinking, and behavior

infantile amnesia

inability of adults to recollect early episodic memories

recall

process of retrieving information or events from the past without a specific cue to help

recognition

process of memory that involves outside stimuli to trigger a sense of familiarity with an experience

retrieval cues

stimuli that help people recall memories from long-term memory

context-dependent memory

when retrieval is improved when you’re in the same environment as when you first learned the info

mood-congruent memory

when you’re more likely to recall memories that match your current mood

state-dependent memory

retrieval is improved if you’re in the same physical or mental state as when the memory was encoded

testing effect

an enhancement in the long-term retention of information as a result of taking a memory test

metacognition

awareness of your own cognitive processes

forgetting curve

forgetting happens rapidly after we learn new info

encoding failure

happens when info is not stored correctly, due to our attention being divided during the encoding process or because of inadequate retrieval cues

proactive interference

when older memories interfere with the recall of newer memories

retroactive interference

when newer memories interfere with the recall of older memories

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

when you know something, but you can’t quite think of the exact name

repression

automatic process that shields a person from confronting difficult emotions or experiences

misinformation effect

a memory can be distorted if an individual alters it with misleading or false info

source amnesia

person can remember info, but cannot recall where or how they learned it

constructive memory

when we remember info, brain combines actual stored info with additional elements such as assumptions, expectations, and even new info

imagination inflation

when someone imagines an event that never happened and then becomes more confident that it actually happened

intelligence

ability to learn from experiences, adapt to new situations, solve problems, and apply knowledge in a variety of different contexts

general intelligence (g)

existence of a broad mental capacity that influences performance on cognitive ability measures

multiple abilities (in reference to intelligence)

proposes that human intelligence is not a single entity but rather consists of several distinct abilities

intelligence quotient (iq)

standard measure of an individual's intelligence level based on psychological tests

mental age

age level of an individual's mental ability

chronological age

person's age in years, months, and days, calculated from the date of their birth to the date their age is asked

intelligence tests

psychological assessment that measures a person's cognitive abilities, such as reasoning, problem-solving, and memory

psychometric principles

fundamental guidelines used to ensure the quality of psychological tests and assessments (reliability, validity, standardization)

standardized

standardized tests allow the test to be administered in a consistent way (same environment and procedures)

valid

measure of how well a test or method measures what it claims to

construct validity

degree in which a test can actually measure a specific trait or concept, ensuring the test accurately measures the specific concepts or traits that it’s supposed to

predictive validity

predicts future performance; can only be used if there is a large data set; used to predict trends and patterns

reliability

produces consistent results each time it is administered

test-retest reliability

consistency of test results over time, when the same person takes the test again