2.2 Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgements, & Decision-Making

• concepts - mental categories that help us organize and understand the world

  • allow us to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people under a shared classification

  • concepts form the foundation of our thought process

  • ex) if you were asked to kind about balls used in sports, the concept would be ball, but the specific examples (basketball, baseball, volleyball) are called prototypes

• prototypes - most typical/basic example of a concept and serves as a mental image that illustrates the concept and acts as a cognitive reference point/benchmark

• schemas - more complex mental frameworks that organize and interpret information about the world

  • guide our expectations and actions, and are built from our past experiences and knowledge

  • people generally form and modify schemas through assimilation or accommodation

• assimilation - when we fit new info into existing schemas

  • ADDS new info, DOES NOT ALTER

• accommodation - when we change a schema to incorporate new info

  • ADDS new info, DOES ALTER

• executive functions - cognitive processes that help individuals generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors, as well as engage in critical thinking

  • linked to frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex

  • rely on skills such as language, judgement, logic, and reasoning

• when an individual is faced with a problem, they use a variety of approaches to solve it

  • algorithms - where a person tackles a problem step-by-step in a systematic way

    • ex) if you lose your phone, you search one room at a time to ensure you don’t miss any areas

  • heuristics - mental shortcuts based on past experiences

    • ex) instead of searching every room, you might decide to retrace your steps and focus on areas where you last had your phone

    • helps to make quick decisions, but don’t always guarantee accuracy and can sometimes lead to errors in judgement

    • representative heuristics - making judgements based on how much something resembles or represents a typical case or stereotype

      • causes individuals to overlook important details in favor of info that aligns with their expectations or personal biases

    • availability heuristics - making judgements based on how easily examples come to mind

      • can lead to errors when decisions are heavily influenced by recent or vivid memories, rather than a full consideration of the facts

• we often utilize mental sets when encountered with a new problem/challenge

• mental set - cognitive framework that relies on past experiences and successful strategies to solve new problems

  • NOT THE SAME AS A SCHEMA!!

    • mental sets are specific to problem-solving

    • schemas are specific to organizing info

  • ends up saving our time and energy, but can limit our creativity and prevent us from considering better or more efficient solutions

• priming - phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus influences how we respond to a later stimulus

  • repetition priming - occurs when you are exposed to a specific stimulus that makes it easier to recognize that same or similar stimulus later

  • semantic priming - involves influence of one word on the interpretation of another related word

    • ex) if you see the word doctor, you are more likely to quickly recognize or process related words like nurse or hospital → “doctor” primes your brain to expect related concepts

• framing - how info is presented, which can shape how we interpret and react to it, often influencing our decisions and judgements

  • ex) when a product is labeled as "90% fat-free" instead of "10% fat," causing people to perceive it as a healthier option due to the positive framing of the info

• creativity - when we create new original ideas and solutions

  • approaches to creativity:

    • divergent thinking - when a person explores many possible solutions, expanding the range of options for solving a problem

    • convergent thinking - narrowing down possibilities to identify the single best solution

  • sternberg’s 5 components of creativity:

    • expertise - the more knowledge someone has about a subject, the more likely they are to apply it in new and innovative ways

    • imaginative thinking - one must be able to view concepts in unique and creative ways, instead of focusing on traditional perspectives

    • venturesome personality - individuals must be willing to seek out new experiences and embrace challenges that will help them grow and see things from different perspectives

    • intrinsic motivation - individuals must have an internal drive to pursue a goal for personal satisfaction, rather than external rewards

    • creative environment - individuals that surround themselves with other creative people and put themselves in creative environments tend to foster innovation and promote creative thinking

  • creativity may be hindered due to people being fixated on a particular way of thinking, limiting their ability to see problems from a different perspective

    • functional fixedness - limits a person to using an object only in its traditional way

      • ex) if you only see a hammer as a tool for pounding nails, you may overlook its potential to be used as a doorstop (or weapon😈)

• cognitive biases

  • gambler’s fallacy - mistaken belief that if an event occurs more frequently than normal, during a given period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa

    • ex) if you are at the roulette table, and it keeps landing on red, you may think there is a higher probability for the next spin to land on black → odds are the same

    • previous outcomes do not predict future outcomes → leads to poor decision-making

  • sunk-cost fallacy - tendency to continue to pursue an action in which you’ve already invested money, time, or resources into, regardless of its future value

    • ex) if you’ve started a business and things were promising at first, it becomes clear that after a significant amount of time, money, and effort, that the business is failing; you might feel compelled to continue investing, not wanting past efforts and investments to go to waste

    • keeps individuals stuck in unproductive situations, rather than making choices that would benefit them moving forward

2.3 Introduction to Memory

• memory - info that persists over time, acquired through various experiences, and can be stored and retrieved later

  • memory =/= metacognition (awareness of your own cognitive processes)

  • explicit memory - info that we consciously recall, requiring effort and thought

    • episodic memory - relates to personal experiences or events

    • semantic memory - involves knowledge, facts, and general info

  • implicit memory - info or skills we learn without being fully aware of it

    • procedural memory - helps recall how to perform tasks, such as motor skills and routines

  • prospective memory - remembering to perform future actions, like recalling to take medication at a specific time or attending a meeting next week

• retention questions → if yes to all, you have a memory! (woohoo!!)

  • can you recall the info?

  • can you recognize the info?

  • can you quickly relearn the info?

• parallel processing - handles multiple streams of info simultaneously

  • while you are focused on creating explicit memories, your brain is also focused on forming implicit ones

• long-term potentiation - strengthens synaptic connections between neurons in the brain through repeated activation

  • allows brain to form stronger and more efficient neuro-connections, which enhances our ability to store and retain knowledge and skills over time, making it a critical part in memory formation and learning

• working memory model (aka short-term memory) - explains how our primary memory system, known as working memory, processes and temporarily holds info for cognitive tasks

  

  • visuospatial sketchpad (inner eye) - handles visual and spatial info, allowing us to visualize objects and their locations

    • ex) imagining a scene or navigating a familiar path

  • phonological loop - deals with verbal and auditory info

    • phonological store (inner ear) - holds spoken words and sounds for a short period of time

    • auditory rehearsal process (inner voice) - helps you repeat and rehearse verbal info to keep it active in your working memory

  • central executive - acts as control center of working memory

    • manages and coordinates the other components: focusing attention, prioritizing tasks, switching between different activities, integrating info from both phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

  • episodic buffer - explains how long-term memory integrates with working memory and how different types of info, such as sounds and visuals, are combined

    • acts as a temporary storage system that brings together info from phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory into one cohesive sequence

• multi-store model - explains how info is processed, stored, and retrieved, focusing on three key systems that info must pass through if it’s going to be remembered

  

  • stimulus - anything we see, hear, or experience

    • first goes to our sensory memory

  • sensory memory - consists of our iconic (👁) and echoic (👂) memory

    • iconic memory - visual sensory memory that only lasts for a fraction of a second

      • explains why you can see the afterglow of a sparkler

    • echoic memory - auditory sensory memory that lasts between one to four seconds

      • explains why you can remember the last couple words someone says around you, even if you weren’t really paying attention

    • at this stage, automatic processing takes place, meaning info is gathered with little to no conscious effort

    • if something captures your attention here, the info moves to your working memory (aka short-term memory)

  • short-term memory - can only hold a limited amount of info for a short period of time

    • you can keep info active by using…

      • maintenance rehearsal - when you repeatedly go over info to prevent forgetting

        • ex) when you recite a phone number to yourself over and over again

      • elaborative rehearsal - when you connect new info to something you already know, making it easier to remember

  • encoding - processes of moving info from working memory to long-term memory

    • if info is properly encoded, it gets stored in long-term memory, where it stays until we need to retrieve it in the future

  • retrieval - drawing out info or memories stored in the brain

  • KEY TAKEAWAY!! → our attention is crucial when trying to form memories

    • if our attention is divided, it disrupts the encoding process, making it harder to retain and recall info later on

    • SO… while you are studying and trying to process info, you remove distractions and focus on the task at hand

• levels of processing model - memory is encoded on 3 levels

  

  • structural processing

    • most superficial level

    • focus is on physical appearance/structure of the info (what a word looks like)

    • ex) “cat”

  • phonemic processing

    • deeper level

    • focus is on how the info sounds (how a word is pronounced) // phonemes

    • ex) “cat” → sounds “c,” “a,” and “t” are all phonemes

  • semantic processing

    • deepest level

    • focus is on the meaning of the info // morphemes

    • ex) “cat” → meaning is “a small feline”

  • KEY TAKEAWAY!! → the deeper level of processing, the better your memory retention compared to shallow processing levels

2.4 Encoding Memories

• encoding - process and strategies we use to take in info and store it in out LTM

  • visual encoding - encoding info by the visual elements we observe

    • ex) when reading a book, you may notice certain sections of the book have a specific font/color

  • acoustic encoding - when different sound elements help with encoding process

    • ex) when some people remember info by using rhymes

  • tactile encoding - using touch when encoding the info

    • ex) remembering the feel of certain textures

  • organizational encoding - processing info in terms of specific sequence

    • ex) lists, groups, relationships between different items

  • elaborative encoding - pairing new info with prior knowledge

    • ex) when meeting someone named sandy, you associate them with sand/sandy beach

  • semantic encoding - focusing on the meaning or context of the info

    • ex) remembering colors of the rainbow rainbow with ROYGBIV

• we can encode new info by using…

  • mnemonic devices - help people remember info more easily by organizing it in a way that’s easier to recall (acronyms, visual images, rhymes, associations)

    • method of loci - helps you remember info by associating it with specific locations in a familiar setting

      • uses spatial memory and vivid imagery to enhance recall, making it easier to remember detailed info

  • chunking - grouping individual pieces of info into larger, more manageable units

    • ex) when remembering lots of numbers, it’s easier when they are broken down into smaller chunks

  • categorization and hierarchies - help brain create connections between related concepts, making it easier to store and retrieve info later on

  • distributed practice

    • spacing effect - when info is learned all at once (massed practice), we get a false sense that we understand the info , but when we space out our studying and practice distributed practice, you will often see real learning

    • results in improved memory consolidation

    • testing effect - actively retrieving information from memory through testing or practice quizzes enhances long-term retention of that information

• when studying info, we have a set order in which the info is presented to us, which can cause us to be impacted by the serial position effect

• serial position effect - the order in which info is presented can affect our ability to remember it

  • info that is at the start of a list are more likely to be remembered than items in the middle → primacy effect

    • info at beginning is more memorable, because it has had more time to be rehearsed and encoded into LTM

    • ex) when you’re trying to memorize a script, and you mess up, you start over

  • information at the end of a list is easier to recall, because it is still fresh → recency effect

  • info in the middle is the most difficult for us to remember, since it doesn’t get practiced as often, and isn’t the most recent info reviewed

2.5 Storing Memories

• storage - process of holding or retaining encoded information over time

• types of memory:

  • sensory memory → briefest form of memory, only lasting a few secs

  • short-term memory → holds around 7 items at a time and usually only for 20 to 30 secs

  • working memory → more updated dynamic form of our short-term memory, not only stores info, but also processes info

    • plays critical role in managing info

  • long-term memory → has unlimited capacity, and can store info for long periods of time

    • includes facts, experiences, skills, and other learned types of info

    • memory consolidation - process by which STMs are transformed into LTMs

      • memories are solidified, and neural connections in the brain are strengthened, making it easier to recall info later on (occurs while we sleep)

• frontal lobe and hippocampus are associated with explicit memories; cerebellum and basil ganglia play a critical role in forming/storing implicit memories

• we have 2 distinct memory systems for LTM

  • automatic processing

  • effortful processing - process of encoding information through conscious effort and attention

• our emotions can influence the creation and storage of memories

  • when we’re scared or sad, our bodies release hormones that promote memory formation

  • our emotional reaction to a situation or event can cause us to form flashbulb memories

  • flashbulb memories - formed around event that are extremely stressful, traumatic, or emotional; often clear and very specific

    • ex) if you ask someone what they did on 9/11, they can probably tell you exactly where they were, and what they were doing

• autobiographical memory - memories connected to our own lives; generally these are more memorable because of the personal relevance these memories have

  • highly superior autobiographical memory - individuals have an extraordinary ability to remember events from their own lives, often due to individual’s biological processes

• if the hippocampus is damaged, an individual may find it hard to recall explicit memories

  • damage to left hippocampus → struggling to remember verbal info

  • damage to right hippocampus → struggling to remember visual info

• amnesia - temporary or permanent loss of memory

  • retrograde amnesia - person can no longer retrieve past info

    • happens because of a blow to a person’s head

  • anterograde amnesia - person can no longer form new memories

    • happens almost always because of something happening to hippocampus

  • source amnesia - person can remember info, but cannot recall where or how they learned it

  • infantile amnesia - adult cannot remember personal experiences from early years of life

• alzheimer’s disease - neurodegenerative disease that impairs memory and cognitive functions of an individual

  • as it worsens, it disrupts storage and retrieval of both new and old memories

2.6 Retrieving Memories

• memory retrieval - when we access info stored in our memory

  • recall - we retrieve info without any cues or hints

  • recognition - when we use retrieval cues to help access info

    • tends to be easier, because of external cues

• ex) if you are asked to give your phone number at a store, you will most likely use recall, since you won’t have any prompts to help you remember your number

• ex) if you’re taking a quiz, you will utilize recognition, since you’re going to recognize the correct answer from the provided options

• memory retrieval process can be influenced by our mood, environment, and physical state, which act as retrieval cues and make it easier for our brains to access stored info

• memory retrieval can be enhanced when the conditions during recall match the conditions present during the encoding of the memory

  • context-dependent memory - when retrieval is improved when you’re in the same environment as when you first learned the info

  • mood-congruent memory - when you’re more likely to recall memories that match your current mood

  • state-dependent memory - retrieval is improved if you’re in the same physical or mental state as when the memory was encoded

    • ex) if you lose something while you’re drunk, you will have a easier time finding it again when you get drunk

• retrieval cues - associating new info with previously learned info

  • ex) when trying to learn the names of classmates, you could connect their names with where they sit in the class, their hair color, or different interests

• in addition to distributed practice, deep-processing methods, and the testing effect, you can use metacognition

2.7 Forgetting and Other Memory Challenges

• forgetting curve - forgetting happens rapidly after we learn new info

  • at first, there is a steep decline in memory retention; however, over time, the rate of forgetting slows down and eventually levels off

  • this curve can be countered with reinforcement and reviewed

    • DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE = GOOD!!!

  • memories may be difficult to retrieve, because they were never properly encoded

• encoding failure - happens when info is not stored correctly, due to our attention being divided during the encoding process or because of inadequate retrieval cues

• tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon - when you know something, but you can’t quite think of the exact name

  • ex) when you hear a song and recognize it, but you can’t think of the name

• proactive interference - when older memories interfere with the recall of newer memories

  • Proactive

  • Old

  • Recall

  • New (😼...)

• retroactive interference - when newer memories interfere with the recall of older memories

  • Retroactive

  • New

  • Recall

  • Old (renro)

• info or memories can be repressed

• distress - stress perceived to be detrimental, and is often caused by negative life events

• eustress - stress perceived as beneficial, and is often caused by positive life events

• defense mechanisms - allow ego to protect itself and reduce anxiety

  • focus on distorting reality and happen unconsciously

  • most basic mechanism is repression of memories

• repression - believed to be an automatic process that shields a person from confronting difficult emotions or experiences

• constructive memory - when we remember info, brain combines actual stored info with additional elements such as assumptions, expectations, and even new info

• reconsolidation - process of altering memories that have been recalled before they are stored again

• misinformation effect - a memory can be distorted if an individual alters it with misleading or false info

• imagination inflation - when someone imagines an event that never happened and then becomes more confident that it actually happened

2.8 Intelligence and Achievement

• intelligence - ability to learn from experiences, adapt to new situations, solve problems, and apply knowledge in a variety of different contexts

  • fluid intelligence - ability to quickly reason and breakdown abstract problems

    • decreases as we get older

  • crystallized intelligence - accumulated knowledge and verbal skills an individual has

    • increases as we get older

• ongoing debate regarding intelligence: is intelligence a general ability (g)? does intelligence comprise multiple abilities?

  • proponents of intelligence being a general ability argue that people who perform well in one cognitive area tend to perform well in others, leading to a belief in a general intelligence (g)

  • proponents of intelligence being comprised of multiple abilities believe intelligence is not a single trait; rather, a combination of distinct skills such as emotional intelligence, creativity, and practical problem-solving

• individuals with a fixed mindset believe intelligence is something you are born with, and cannot change

  • could potentially limit an individual and tempt them to give up more easily

• individuals with a growth mindset believe intelligence can be developed through effort and learning

  • often leads individuals to seek growth opportunities; when they come across a challenge, they may view it as an opportunity to grow and work to overcome the challenge

• for years, may have been trying to figure out how to quantify an individual’s intelligence

  • early formal intelligence tests like those developed by alfred binet, introduced the concept of an intelligence quotient (IQ)

    • in this test, a person’s mental age, which was the level of intellectual development relative to others, was divided by their chronological age, and the results were then multiplied by 100 to find out their IQ

  • tests have evolved, and they now compare an individual’s performance to that of others in the same age group, using a standardized scale

  • IQ scores today are often used to help identify students for educational services such as special education or gifted programs

  • IQ scores have also been used to determine the qualification of an individual for a particular job, rank in the military, or even if they should be allowed into a country (in early 20th cent, intelligence tests were used to assess immigrants; if immigrant did not score high enough, they would be denied into the US)

  • now, individuals are working to create intelligence assessments that are socio-culturally responsive, to minimize any bias and reduce negative impacts such as…

    • stereotype threat - fear/anxiety one may feel when they are at risk for confirming negative stereotypes about their social group

    • stereotype lift - when an individual benefits from positive stereotypes about their social group

  • psychometric principles - principles intelligence tests must follow to be relevant and beneficial to an individual

    • reliability - produces consistent results each time it is administered

      • test-retest reliability - consistency of test results over time, when the same person takes the test again

      • split-half reliability - consistency of results within the test itself, such as comparing the results from two halves of the same test

        • allows researchers to determine is test takers do better on one part of the test compared to the other part

        • there should be a high correlation between the two parts, showing that the test is correlated with itself

    • validity - measure of how well a test or method measures what it claims to

      • content validity - extent to which a test inquires about the info or behaviors that are of interest of the test

      • criterion validity - checks to see if the test correlates with any outside variables or measures; if this is low, the test may not me valid

      • construct validity - degree in which a test can actually measure a specific trait or concept, ensuring the test accurately measures the specific concepts or traits that it’s supposed to

      • predictive validity - predicts future performance; can only be used if there is a large data set; used to predict trends and patterns

    • standardization - standardized test allow the test to be administered in a consistent way

      • procedures and environment is the same for anyone who takes the test → reduces bias and allows for fair comparison

  • flynn effect - observation of an increase in human intelligence scores over time

    • believed due to better education, economic stability, health care, nutrition, and learning resources

    • these advancements paired with advancements in technology and education allow for more engagement and stimulating environments, which have helped contribute to the rise in the average IQ score over time

  • there is more variation in IQ scores among individuals within the same group, than there is between different groups

    • group: race, gender, socioeconomic status

    • this highlights the importance that you don’t make assumptions about intelligence based solely on a person’s group identity

  • IQ scores =/= an individual’s potential

    • can be shaped by factors beyond their control such as personal or sociocultural biases, which can lead to the misinterpretation of intelligence levels about a person’s intelligence and potential

      • poverty, discrimination, educational inequalities can all negatively impact IQ scores and lead to unfair judgements of individuals and societal groups

• achievement tests - designed to measure what someone knows at a specific point in time

  • assess knowledge and skills that a person has already learned

    • ex) ap psych exam in may!!!! 😁(🫠)

  • evaluates past learning to see if you have mastered the content

• aptitude tests - aim to predict how someone will perform int he future

  • measure a person’s potential to learn new skills or succeed in specific areas

  • ex) ACT, SAT, ASVAB → predict how well one will do in the future (college/career/military…)