Unit 2 Social Psychology

Ingroup

a group to which we belong and that forms a part of our social identity

outgroup

any group with which we do not share membership

sterotypes

beliefs about the personalities, abilities, and motives of a social group that doesn't allow for individual variation; a type of schema

explicit and implicit

how is stereotyping similar to cognitive biases (heuristics)

fast "shortcuts to thinking" and are efficient and help us navigate the world

outgroup homogeneity effect

perception of outgroup members as being more similar to one another than are members of one's ingroup

why does outgroup homogeneity effect happen

we invest less cognitive effort when attending to outgroup members compared to ingroup members, relying more on group-based stereotypes when making social judgements

illusory correlation

belief that two variables are associated with each other when no actual association exists

two factors that cause illusory correlations

associative meaning

- two variables are associated with each other because of the perceiver's preexisting beliefs

shared distinctiveness

- two variables are associated because they share some unusual features

p.s. - illusory correlations are the belief that two variables are associated with each other when no actual association exists

associative meaning

two variables are associated with each other because of the perceiver's preexisting beliefs

ex: recalling events relevant to your stereotype while ignoring irrelevant events; ignoring information that is relevant but inconsistent with the stereotype

shared distinctiveness

two variables are associated because they share some unusual feature

ex: may recall a couple of memories in line with a stereotyped belief because both of these memories contain "infrequent" or "distinct" variables making them more likely to come up in memory

subtyping

a cognitive process in which people perceive an individual who doesn't fit their stereotype as being an exception to the rule and they create a separate subcategory of the stereotype for that individual

ex: that sharp older person is just one of the few that aged 'well'

why does subtyping happen

subtyping = creating subcategories for a stereotype (like sharp old people vs regular old people)

allows us to keep our overall group stereotype

social role theory

idea that gendered beliefs arise from observing societal roles

ex: women more likely to work in occupations involving nurturing traits (teacher, nurse, daycare provider); men in occupation involving assertive traits (physician, manager, police officer)

people generalize these observed behavior to the group of this individual; overgeneralization

women are wonderful effect

cultural belief where women are described more positively than men

implication that women are "friendlier" and "nicer" than men and thus need a "strong" and "dominant" man to protect them

when do stereotypes happen (like heuristics)

when lack cognitive resources or have little motivation to be accurate about impressions

what role do seemingly positive stereotypes play in inequality

they can be used to justify inequality

exs: Asians = good at math; heavier folks = happy-go-lucky; older = wise

ethnocentrism

evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture

ex: believing someone else's cultural practices are odd because they differ from one's own

prejudice

attitudes toward members of specific groups that directly or indirectly suggest they deserve an inferior social status

explicit prejudice

prejudicial attitudes that are consciously held, even if they are not publicly expressed

implicit prejudice

unconsciously held prejudicial attitudes

high internal motivation to control prejudice

an individual who is motivated to control their implicit prejudice

people with low explicit prejudice but high implicit prejudice toward a group

what may experience

may not be aware of their negative bias

may experience guilt and shame when realize they have an implicit prejudice

ex: claim to have egalitarian values but then react negatively when an imigrant moves into your town

stereotyping

association of a social group with traits reflecting cognitive schema of the group

(different from prejudice which is the evaluation of a social group)

which is more stable, implicit or explicit prejudice

implicit

more stable, enduring, and difficult to change than explicit prejudices

how can implicit prejudice be modified

with awareness, motivation, and effort

discirmination

negative and/or patronizing actions toward members of specific groups

institutional discrimination

discriminatory guildlines of institutions

stereotype content model

a theory that the form of prejudice directed toward a particular group is determined by perceptions of the group's warmth and competence (two dimensions)

determine dimensions of a group --> translate into emotional reactions --> create different forms of prejudice

warmth

extent to which the target group is perceived as being trustworthy and friendly

ex: groups in cooperation with mainstream society

competence

the extent to which the target group is perceived as capable and their degree of assertiveness

ex: high social status = high competence

contemtuous prejudice

exclusively negative attitudes, such as disrespect, disgust, resentment, and hostility; "traditional" prejudice

low in warmth, low in competence

exs: the homeless, LGBTQ+, undocumented immigrants

what prejudice is for low in warm and low in competence

contemptuous prejudice

ambivalent prejudice

consists of both negative and positive attitudes towards an outgroup

having both envious and paternalistic prejudice for example

envious prejudice

feelings of resentment and hostility are mixed with fear and envy; resentment for their status

low warmth, high competence

exs: Asians, jews, the rich

what prejudice is for low warmth + high competence

envious prejudice

paternalistic prejudice

patronizing affection and pity mixed with condescension and disrespect

high warmth, low competence

exs: older adults, the disabled; traditional women

what prejudice is for high warmth + low competence

paternalistic prejudice

stigma

an attribute that serves to discredit a person in the eye of others

a stigmatized person has a difference that society views as discrediting

what groups are more frequently stereotyped

members of stigmatized groups are more frequently stereotyped than members of non-stigmatized groups

anyone can be stereotyped though

p.s stigma = an attribute that serves to discredit a person in the eyes of others

racism

prejudice and discrimination based on a person's racial background

old-fashioned racism

blatantly negative stereotypes based on belief in the racial superiority of one's own group coupled with open opposition to racial equality

Why White people have negative feelings/beliefs against African Americans even though have egalitarian values

simple biases of ingroup and outgroup + exposre to unflattering stereotypes and media images depicting African Americans negatively

aversive racism

attitudes towards members of a racial group that incorporate both egalitarian social values and negative emotions (both positive and negative feelings)

uneasiness and even fear instead of anger of contempt

think of themselves as egalitarian and nonracist; do not act in racist ways when it would be identified as such

sexism

any attitude, action, or institutional structure that subordinates a person because of their sex or gender

primary focus on prejudice males direct on females

hostile sexism

reflects overt hostility and derogatory attitudes towards women

what most people think of as sexism

benevolent sexism

suggests women are "warm and wonderful" people who are in need of male protection (reflects the belief that women need to be cared for, much like children)

correlated with hostile sexism; if endorse hostile sexism, tend to endorse benevolent sexism too

ambivalent sexism

sexism directed against women based on both positive and negative attitudes (hostility and benevolence) rather than on uniform dislike

whether an ambivalent sexist individual responds to a women with hostility or benevolence depends on what

it depends on the 'type' of women she is

subtype women

contemptuous prejudice = women high status low warmth (stepped out of traditional gender roles)

paternalistic prejudice = women low status high warmth (need to keep them in their place; protective)

courtesy stigma

when a stigma is so strong that individuals who are asosciated with members of these stigmatized groups also face negative evaluations from others

exs: weight, sexual and gender identity, mental illness

where is weight-based prejudice more pronounced (individualist vs collectivist cultures) and why

individualist

more likely to hold people accountable for personal outcomes while ignoring situational factors that could play a significant role in weight

sexual prejudice

negative attitudes based on sexual orientation, whether the target is homosexual, bisexual, or heterosexual

gender-identity prejudice

all negative attitudes directed toward individuals who identify as transgender or who do not conform to the gender binary of "male" or "female"

heterosexism

a system of cultural beliefs, values, and customs that exalts heterosexuality and denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any nonheterosexual form of behavior or identity

exalt - hold something in high regards

interpersonal discrimination

treated in a less friendly manner and made to feel unwelcome or "invisible" in various social settings

why negative attitudes towards those with mental illness

1) perceived as being at fault/responsible for their disorder

2) perceived as being dangerous/posing a threat to others

3) mistakenly believe mental illness is rare/uncommon

stereotype threat

the apprehension people feel when performing a task in which their group is stereotyped to lack ability

ex: women in a math course

why does stereotype threat happen

feel concerned that if they perform poorly they will be confirming or perpetuating the negative stereotype --> interferes with actual performance in the negatively stereotyped task

stereotype threat --> triggers arousal state --> hinders individuals' working memory capacity --> more difficult to concentrate and remember relevant info

when is stereotype threat most noticeable

most noticeable and problematic among social groups that have been historically disadvantaged

can happen amongst dominant groups for tasks in which they've been negatively stereotyped though (WhiteMen Can't Jump)

disidentification

coping response to prejudice and discrimination where one doesn't include something within their self-concept as to not be harmed by the stereotypes surrounding it

ex: a Black student may disidentify with school work due to being told they're incpable and thus do worse in school since it doesn't matter to them

social identity theory

a theory suggesting that people seek to enhance their self-esteem by identifying with specific social groups and perceiving these groups as being better than other groups

social identity

derive from the groups to which we belong; establishes what and where we are in social terms

ingroup bias

perceiving our ingroup as better than other groups

realistic group conflict theory

the theory that ingroup conflict develops from competition for limited resources

ethnocentrism effects (outgroups vs ingroups)

increases hostility toward outgroups accompanied by increased loyalty to one's ingroup

Robbers Cave Study

boys, two group, ingroup creation, competition (competing for scarce resources), led to hostility and violence, then reunited the groups through teamwork and common goals (superordinate goal)

superordinate goal

a mutually shared goal that can be achieved only through intergroup cooperation

symbolic threats

perception that an outgroup is culturally different

people may feel threatened cuz believe the outgroup is changing their 'way of life' with their different cultural practices

social dominance theory

a theory contending that societal groups can be organized in a power hierarchy in which the dominant groups enjoy a disproportionate share of the societal assets (like prestige, education, health) and the subordinate groups receive most of its liabilities (poverty, social stigma, illiteracy, poor health, and high level of criminal punishment)

who si contemtuous prejudcie and paternalistic prejudice expressed by vs who is envious prejudice expressed by

contemptuous + paternalistic = oppressor

envious = subordinate

strong social dominance orientation

desire and support the organization of societal groups in a status hierarchy, with designated "inferior" groups being dominated by designated "superior" groups

personal-group discrimination discrepancy

the tendency for members of disadvantaged groups to downplay personal discrimination in their own lives

would mean to admitting you don't have control over your life or that you are a part of the discriminated group (ex: "I'm not THAT gay")

system justification theory

a theory proposing that memebers of both advantaged and disadvantaged groups often adopt beliefs endorsing the legitimacy and fairness of the unequal group status hierarchy in society

Ssocial stereotypes play a big role by justifying positive outcomes of dominant group, negative of subordinates, and exploitation or subordinate by dominant

ex: poor people being displayed in movies as being the 'happy' ones

Authoritarian personality

a personality type characterized by submissivness to authority, rigid adherence to conventional values, and prejudice toward outgroups

taught to repress hostility towards authority and instead redirect/displace to targets who can't retaliate

as perceived social threat goes up (like evonomic hardships and social upheaval) what else goes up

authoritarian values increase in already mildly authoritarian individuals

ex: as Covid death toll sincreased, so did endorsemeent of authoritarian beliefs

discrepant response

slipping back into the old way of stereotyping and discrepancy; prejudiced response

discrepancy associated consequences

awareness of discrepancy and experiencing a response like feelings of guilt and self-criticism

stereotype activation route one (prejudiced disrepant response)

stereotype activation (women not as smart as man)

prejudiced or discrepant response (this is hard for a woman; let me show you how to do it)

awareness of discrepancy (that was sexist)

discrepancy-associated consequences (guilt, self-focus, search for triggers)

stereotyped activation route where don't engage in stereotype

stereotype activation (women not as smart as man)

slow down; careful

prejudiced response inhibited and replaced with low-prejudiced response (let's work together on this hard task)

three routes for confrontation of prejudice

pointing our inappropriateness of comment with hopes of educating people

expressing diagreement

expressing personal upset about harm

social benefits of calling out prejudcie

provides opportunity to edjucate perpetrators

raise awareness and hopefully reduce prejudice

personal benefits of calling out prejudice

can reduce negative feelings aroused from perpetrators' comments

provides a sense of autonmy

contact hypothesis

the theory that under certain conditions, direct contact between antagonistic groups will reduce prejudice

manipulation of situational variables between groups with a history of conflict to decrease hostility

equal social status (contact hypothesis)

a situational condition for the contact hypothesis

members of groups in conflict should interact in settings where everyone has roughly equal status

sustained close contact (contact hypothesis)

a situational condition for the contact hypothesis

interaction between members of different groups should be one-on-one and should be maintained over an extended period of time

intergroup cooperation (contact hypothesis)

a situational condition for the contact hypothesis

members of differnt groups should engage in joint activities to achieve superordinate goals

social norms favoring equality (contact hypothesis)

a situational condition for the contact hypothesis

there must be a clear social perception, largely fostered by group authority figures, that prejudice and discrimination are not condoned

friendship potential (contact hypothesis)

a situational condition for the contact hypothesis (secret fifth)

developing friendships with outgroup members precipitates initial reductions in intergroup tensions and fosters emotional ties that are important in reducing prejudice over time

what are the five situational components of contact hypothesis

equal social status

sustained close contact

intergroup cooperation

social norms favoring equality

friendship potential

contact hypothesis criticism

overemphasis on changing dominant group's prejudicial attitudes; ignores attitudes of the marginalized (whom may feel anxious out of fear of being victimized)

intergroup anxiety

anxiety when interacting with someone of a different group

jigsaw classroom

students piece together their daily lessons like a jigsaw puzzle and thus had to cooperate in a classroom and was used to reduce interacial tensions in recently desegregated classrooms

wise school

education approach where students are provided feedback that doesn't induce stereotype threat

tricomponent view of attitude

attitudes are made up of our beliefs about an object (cognitive), our feelings about the object (affective), and our past behavior toward the object

don't need all three to form an attitude

attitude

a positive of negative evaluation of an object

an attitude is strong the the extent it is ---

accessible

easily comes to mind when you encounter the object being evaluated

implicit cognition

involves judgements or decisions that occur automatically without our awareness

implicit attitude

an attitude that is activated automatically from memory, often without the person's awareness that she or he possesses it

explicit attitude

a consciously held atttiude

dual attitudes

simultaneous possession or contradictury implict and explicit attitudes toward the same object

reference group

a group to which people orient themselves, using its standards to judge themselves and the world