The Policies of the European Union (I) - Lesson 6

What is the European Union in terms of trade?

The world’s largest single market area.

The EU accounts for ___% of world exports (2023)

30.2%

How many countries is the EU the top trading partner for?

80 countries

How many trade agreements does the EU have?

74 countries, the largest network in the world.

Who is responsible for EU trade policy and agreements?

The European Union, which negotiates on behalf of member states.

How does the EU negotiate in international trade?

It speaks with one voice at both bilateral and multilateral levels (e.g., WTO).

What are mixed EU trade agreements?

Agreements that cover not just tariffs but also:

Labor & environmental standards + Investment & dispute settlement + Protection of human rights

Why can national or regional parliaments block an EU trade deal?

Mixed agreements must be ratified by member states, not just the EU Parliament.

Name three key elements of EU trade agreements.

1. Market access for goods & services

2. Investment protection & government procurement

3. Intellectual property & labor rights

What is the status of the EU-China Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI)?

Ratification frozen by the European Parliament since May 2021.

Name an EU trade agreement pending ratification.

EU-Mercosur Agreement

Which EU trade negotiations are pending?

India, Indonesia, and the Philippines

What does CFSP stand for, and what does it cover?

Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) is the EU’s foreign policy framework, covering areas like:

• Foreign policy

• Development

• Trade

• Neighborhood policy

• Humanitarian aid

• Crisis response

Who leads the CFSP, and what is their role?

• The High Representative for CFSP (HR-CFSP) leads EU foreign affairs policy.

• They speak with one voice for all 27 EU countries.

What is the main challenge of the CFSP?

The CFSP only exists when all EU countries agree on a position. With each new EU member, it is harder to reach consensus.

What are four key actions that could strengthen the CFSP, according to the Bruegel Institute?

• Building more European defense capabilities

• Enlarging the EU to the east

• Being more active in conflict resolution in the Middle East

• Removing the unanimity requirement for CFSP and EU enlargement decisions

What is the CSDP, and how is it related to the CFSP?

The Common Security and Defense Policy (CSDP) is part of the CFSP. It focuses on:

• Deploying military or civilian missions outside the EU to preserve peace

• Preventing conflicts outside EU borders

Who leads the CSDP, and how are decisions made?

• The High Representative for CFSP (HR-CFSP) leads the CSDP.

• The European Council and Council of the EU take CSDP decisions by unanimity.

What is the EU Defense Union, and why was it proposed?

• After the Ukraine-Russia war, the EU aims to create a Defense Union.

• This would strengthen EU military cooperation and readiness.

What is PESCO (Permanent Structured Cooperation)?

• A permanent military command structure for planning and conducting military missions.

• 26 EU armed forces work on structural integration.

• Malta is not part of PESCO due to its neutrality policy.

What is the European Peace Facility (EPF)?

• A financial mechanism funded by EU member states.

• It pays for common costs of EU military missions and operations.

What is the European Defense Fund (EDF)?

• A €8 billion fund (2021-2027).

• It promotes collaboration in defense industry projects across the EU.

What is ATALANTA, and what does it do?

• EU Naval Force Somalia (since 2008).

• Ensures freedom of navigation in the Horn of Africa.

• Operates under UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea).

What is EU RACC SAHEL, and what is its purpose?

• EU Regional Advisory and Coordination Cell for the Sahel (since 2019).

• Supports 5 Sahel countries (Chad, Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, Mauritania).

• Aims to help them maintain peace and stability.

How does the European Parliament oversee the CSDP?

It advocates for:

1. Joint procurement of defense products

2. Increasing European defense industry’s production capacity

3. Replenishing depleted military stockpiles

4. Reducing fragmentation in defense procurement

5. Ensuring NATO’s 2% spending goal is a minimum, not a ceiling for EU-NATO countries

What is fragmentation in EU defense industries, and why is it a problem?

• Each EU country develops its own defense systems separately.

• This reduces cooperation, leading to less effective defense.

• Small national markets are less competitive and have less funding for R&D.

• As a result, military technology advances more slowly.

What are the key points about the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)?

• The HR-CFSP represents the EU on foreign policy.

• CFSP requires unanimity, making decisions harder with more members.

• The Bruegel Institute suggests reforms for a stronger CFSP.

What are the key points about the Common Security and Defense Policy (CSDP)?

• The CSDP handles EU military missions.

• The HR-CFSP leads and decisions require unanimity.

• EU wants to create a Defense Union post-Ukraine-Russia war.

What are the main EU defense initiatives?

• PESCO (military cooperation)

• EPF (military funding)

• EDF (€8 billion defense industry fund)

What are some major EU peacekeeping operations?

• ATALANTA (EU Naval Force Somalia)

• EU RACC SAHEL (West African stabilization)

What are the main challenges in EU defense?

• Fragmentation of national defense industries.

• Small national markets leading to less competition and weaker R&D.

• Difficulty in reaching unanimous decisions.

What is the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP) and why was it created?

• The ENP was launched in 2003 to promote stability, security, and prosperity in the EU’s neighboring regions.

• It aims to prevent divisions between the enlarged EU and its neighbors in the South and East.

Which countries are part of the ENP?

The ENP governs EU relations with:

• Eastern Europe & Caucasus: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Ukraine.

• Southern Mediterranean: Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Syria, Palestine, Tunisia.

What benefits does the ENP offer to partner countries?

• Tailor-made partnerships based on each country’s needs.

• Greater access to the EU market.

• Eligibility to participate in EU programs (e.g., Erasmus for education).

• Cooperation funds to support development.

What does the EU Enlargement Policy (EEP) determine?

• It decides if a country is eligible to become an EU candidate.

• It determines when a candidate is ready to join the EU.

What is the legal basis for EU enlargement?

• Article 9 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU) sets the legal framework.

• The Copenhagen Criteria (1993) and European Council conditions (1995) must be met.

What are the four main conditions for a country to join the EU?

A country must:

1. Be a European state.

2. Have stable institutions that guarantee democracy, rule of law, human rights, and minority protections.

3. Have a functioning market economy capable of competing in the EU.

4. Be able to adopt and enforce EU laws and policies (including economic and monetary union goals).

What additional condition must be met for EU enlargement?

The EU itself must be able to integrate new members without harming its stability.

Who decides whether a country becomes an EU candidate?

• The Council of the EU must approve the decision unanimously.

• The decision must be endorsed by the European Council.

• The European Commission must provide an opinion.

What happens after a country becomes an acceding country?

• Accession negotiations begin.

• The country must adopt, implement, and enforce all EU rules (the “acquis”).

• Transition periods are negotiated for gradual compliance.

What are EU rules ("acquis"), and how are they structured?

• The acquis is the body of EU laws that candidate countries must adopt.

• It is divided into 35 chapters.

  • Example: Chapter 1 covers free movement of goods, Chapter 11 covers agriculture.

Who were the founding members of the EU (1957)?

Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Netherlands, Luxembourg.

List all major EU enlargements.

• 1973: Denmark, Ireland, United Kingdom

• 1981: Greece

• 1986: Spain, Portugal

• 1995: Austria, Finland, Sweden

• 2005: Slovenia, Slovakia, Estonia, Cyprus, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Czech Republic

• 2007: Bulgaria, Romania

• 2013: Croatia

Which enlargement was the largest? (year)

2005

Which 9 countries are candidate countries for EU membership?

• Turkey (2005)

• Montenegro (2012)

• Serbia (2014)

• North Macedonia (2020)

• Albania (2020)

• Bosnia and Herzegovina (2022)

• Georgia (2022)

• Ukraine (2023)

• Moldova (2024)

Why did Iceland withdraw its EU application in 2015?

Due to disagreements with the EU’s Common Fisheries Policy.

What is the status of Turkey's EU accession negotiations?

Suspended since May 2021 due to political issues.

Why has EU enlargement stalled since 2013?

• Enlargement fatigue (lack of enthusiasm for adding new members).

• Other urgent issues:

  • 2012 & 2020 economic crises.

  • 2015 refugee crisis.

  • Brexit (UK leaving the EU).

  • Russia-Ukraine war.

  • Trump presidencies (affecting EU foreign policy).

How has the Ukraine war impacted EU enlargement?

• Increased perceived security risks from Russia.

• European Council granted fast-track candidate status to:

  • Moldova & Ukraine (2022).

  • Georgia (2023).

• Montenegro & Serbia accession processes accelerated.

What are the key points about the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP)?

• Created in 2003 to promote stability, security, and prosperity.

• Governs EU relations with 16 neighboring countries.

• Provides market access, Erasmus eligibility, and funding.

What are the key points about the EU Enlargement Policy (EEP)?

• Decides who can become an EU candidate.

• Based on the Copenhagen Criteria (1993) and Article 9 TEU.

• Candidate countries must adopt EU laws ("acquis").

What are the main challenges facing EU enlargement today?

• Enlargement fatigue.

• Major crises (economic, refugee, Brexit, war in Ukraine, Trump presidencies).

• Slow negotiations, but accelerated accession for Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia.

What is the Schengen Area?

• The Schengen Area is a zone where 28 European countries have abolished internal border controls to allow free movement of people, goods, services, and capital.

• It is not identical to the EU, as some non-EU countries are also part of Schengen.

Under what conditions can Schengen countries reintroduce border controls?

• Major threat to public policy or internal security can lead to the temporary reintroduction of border controls.

• Temporary measures are only allowed in exceptional circumstances.

What happens if border controls are reintroduced in Schengen?

The Member State that reintroduces border controls must inform:

• The Council of the EU

• Other Schengen countries

• The European Parliament

• The European Commission

• The public (to ensure transparency).

When was Schengen suspended due to security concerns?

• In 2015, during the Syrian refugee crisis, Schengen was suspended due to concerns over public safety and immigration pressures.

When did France suspend Schengen in recent years?

France suspended Schengen for several months in 2024 due to security concerns related to the Olympic Games.

What is the main point regarding Schengen border controls and security?

• Schengen countries can temporarily reintroduce border controls in case of a major threat to public policy or internal security.

• Any such reintroduction must be communicated to all relevant EU bodies and the public for transparency and cooperation.

• Notable examples include 2015 (Syrian refugee crisis) and 2024 (France during the Olympic Games).

What is the goal of the EU's development policy according to Article 208 of the TFEU?

The goal is the reduction and eradication of poverty.

What does Article 4 of the TFEU state regarding EU countries' competence in development cooperation?

• The EU has the competence to conduct a common policy in development cooperation.

• EU countries may also have their own policies in this field, as allowed by Article 4 of the TFEU.

How is EU development policy aligned with global initiatives?

• The EU development policy is aligned with the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the UN Agenda 2030.

• It is structured around the 5 Ps of the 2030 Agenda:

  • People

  • Planet

  • Prosperity

  • Peace

  • Partnership

What is the EU's role in global official development assistance (ODA)?

The EU and EU countries are jointly the world’s largest donor of official development assistance (ODA), accounting for 42% of global ODA.

How much did the EU alone donate in 2022?

The EU alone donated approximately €98 billion in 2022 for development aid.

What is the role of the European Development Fund (EDF)?

The EDF is the EU's main instrument for providing development aid to 79 countries from the Organization of Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific (ACP).

What are the key elements of the EU development policy?

• The EU development policy aims to reduce and eradicate poverty, aligning with the 17 SDGs.

• It is structured around the 5 Ps (People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace, Partnership).

• The EU and its countries are the world’s largest donors of ODA, contributing 42% of global ODA, and donated €98 billion in 2022.

• The European Development Fund (EDF) provides development aid to 79 countries from the ACP region.