Essentials of Psychology: Chapter 5 MCQs

Which of the following is the best definition of reinforcer?

a. a response that operates on the environment to produced certain consequences

b. a stimulus or event that increases the probability that the response it follows will be repeated

c. a behavior acquired through coincidental association of a response and a reinforcement

d. a cue that signals that reinforcement is available if the subject makes a particular response

e. the introduction of an aversive stimulus after a response occurs

b. a stimulus or event that increases the probability that the response it follows will be repeated

Under which condition would Watson's experiments on classical conditioning be replicated today?

a. If the researchers obtained parental permission to expose the child to intense fear

b. If the researchers used methods to extinguish the fears after completing their experiments

c. If the researchers followed the children for several years to make sire they were not "damaged" from their participation in the experiment

d. If the researchers taught parents how to extinguish their children's fear

e. The experiments would not be replicated even with the parents' permission

e. The experiments would not be replicated even with the parents' permission

Rosa has learned to bring an umbrella with her on overcast days, explaining "I don't want to get wet if it rains." We can explain her behavior as a form of

a. superstitious behavior

b. escape learning

c. latent learning

d. avoidance learning

e. observational learning

d. avoidance learning

The rats in Dr. Rexington's learning laboratory are on an "FR-7" schedule of reinforcement. What does this mean?

a. The rats will receive a food pellet after every seventh bar press.

b. The rats will receive a food pellet after an average of every seven bar presses

c. The rats will receive a food pellet every seven minutes

d. The rats will receive a food pellet an average of every seven minutes

e. The rats will receive a food pellet every seven minutes, unless they press the bar seven ties in a shorter period of time.

a. The rats will receive a food pellet after every seventh bar press.

Which of the following is demonstrating extinction of an operant response?

a. Ginny, who learns to dress herself when her mother reinforces her for accomplishing each small step in the process

b. Ron, who receives praise every time he puts his schoolbooks away

c. Hermoine, who eventually stops raising her hand when Professor Snape fails to call on her

d. Harry, who learns secret routes that provide an escape from the Dark Forest when he is under attack

e. Malfoy, who leaves school two days early at Christmas break to avoid the rush of holiday traffic

c. Hermoine, who eventually stops raising her hand when Professor Snape fails to call on her

Each of the following describes a form of cognitive learning EXCEPT

a. observational learning

b. insight learning

c. operant conditioning

d. latent learning

e. vicarious learning

c. operant conditioning

Increasing the number of pairings of the US and CS will

a. weaken the CR

b. strengthen the CR

c. weaken the CR at first, and then strengthen it

d. strengthen the CR at first, and the weaken it

e. have no effect on the CR

b. strengthen the CR

Chris has been experiencing a number of problems on the job. In order to get away fro his problems for a while, Chris regularly drinks heavily in the evening, after work. We can explain this behavior as a form of

a. escape learning

b. avoidance learning

c. positive reinforcement

d. negative reinforcement

e. punishment

a. escape learning

Graduate student Charisse Goldberg conducted operant conditioning trials with a laboratory rat. Goldberg trained the animal to press a lever to earn a food pellet. The rat successfully learned to press the lever. In the language of operant conditioning, what is the animal's learned response called?

a. a higher-order conditioned response

b. a vicariously learned response

c. a reconditioned response

d.a latent response

e. an operant response

e. an operant response

Regarding punishment, which of the following statements is FALSE?

a. Psychologists an pediatricians encourage parents not to rely on punishment as primary means of discipline.

b. Punishment can involve the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus

c. Punishment can involved the removal of reinforcing stimulus

d. Punishment can be considered the flip side of reinforcement

e. Negative reinforcement is the technical term for punishment

e. Negative reinforcement is the technical term for punishment

Regarding Rescorla's views on classical conditioning, which of the following statements is FALSE?

a. Rescorla believes that classical conditioning depends of how reliably the CS serves as a signal for indicating the occurrence of the US.

b. Rescorla believes that classical conditioning is the result of repeated pairings of the NS and US

c. Rescorla's perspective on classical conditioning can be described as cognitive

d. Rescorla suggests that the more reliably the CS signals the occurrence of the US, the stronger the conditioned response

e. Rescorla believed that classical conditioning has important survival implications for animals

b. Rescorla believes that classical conditioning is the result of repeated pairings of the NS and US

Regarding classical conditioning, which of the following statements is FALSE?

a. Immune system responses can be classically conditioned

b. Drug cravings and taste aversions can be acquired through classical conditioning

c. Feelings of nostalgia can be elicited by stimuli that were associated with pleasant experiences in the past

d. Taste aversions can be acquired with assignable pairing of a food or drink and nausea-inducing stimulus

e. While classical conditioning is effective in creating phobias, its principles are not particularly useful in therapy to address phobias

e. While classical conditioning is effective in creating phobias, its principles are not particularly useful in therapy to address phobias

Which of the following best describes charted data for a variable interval schedule of reinforcement?

a. slight dip in responses after reinforcement

b. slow, steady rate of response

c. responses decrease after an initial steep increase

d. fast, steady rates of response

e. responses pause after each reinforcement

b. slow, steady rate of response

Modern psychologists refer to the first part of the Law of Effect as ______ and the second part as _______.

a. classical conditioning; operant conditioning

b. operant conditioning, classical conditioning

c. reinforcement; punishment

d. punishment; reinforcement

e. trial and error; latent learning

c. reinforcement; punishment

_________ is a process by which two people in a relationship list the behaviors of the other that they would like changed, and then the agreed to reinforce each other for making the changes.

a. Behavioral Management

b. method of successive approximation

c. reinforcement scheduling

d. cognitive mapping

e. contingency contracting

e. contingency contracting

While changing her tire, Marguerite bumped the hubcap and all of the lug nuts fell into a storm sewer. After fretting for several minutes, she suddenly realized she could remove one lug nut from each of the other three tires to temporarily mount the spare until she could get into a service station. This is an example of

a. superstitious behavior

b. insight learning

c. spontaneous recovery

d. shaping

e. latent learning

b. insight learning

When Selena was a young girl, a dog viciously attacked her as she was walking along a white picket fence. Since then, she displays intense fear of white picket fences. Selena is demonstrating a

a. discriminative stimulus

b. superstitious Behavior

c. stimulus discrimination

d. a phobia

e. spontaneous recovery

d. a phobia

Researchers have been able to successfully condition immune system suppression by linking neutral stimuli with a

a. electrical shock

b. drug that induces nausea

c. immune-suppressant drug

d. previously conditioned response

e. immune-suppressant drug and electrical shock

c. immune-suppressant drug

Pavlov found that the strength of a conditioned response increased with the number of pairing of the

a. CR and UR

b. CS and US

c. CS and CR

d. CS and UR

e. CR and US

b. CS and US

Karen agrees to replace the toilet paper when it runs out of her roommate, Susan will wash her dirty dished every evening after dinner. This is an example of

a. latent learning

b. escape learning

c. applying reinforcement

d. giving praise

e. contingency contracting

e. contingency contracting

Mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of the solution occurs is referred to as

a. observational learning

b. trial-and-error learning

c. information processing

d. insight learning

e. latent learning

d. insight learning

Based on research presented in the text, which of the following is the best recommendation for disciplining children?

a. rely mostly on reinforcement

b. avoid reinforcement; rely mostly on punishment to achieve faster effects

c. use only punishment

d. use only reinforcement

e. try to balance the use of reinforcement and punishment

a. rely mostly on reinforcement

Marcel set at a cafe eating the best croissant he'd ever tasted. He begins frequently in the cafe to order the croissants. He hardly notices the jingling of the cash register just before the clerk and Tim the croissant. Now every time he hears the same kind of jingling from another cash register his mouth Waters. Marcell's learning is an example of

a. operant conditioning

b. latent learning conditioned

c. taste aversion

d. classical conditioning

e. observational learning

d. classical conditioning

A discriminative stimulus signals that

a. reinforcement is available for a particular response

b. an unconditioned stimulus is about to be presented

c. a conditioned stimulus is about is about to be presented

d. a neutral stimulus is about to be presented

e. an approximately correct response will receive reinforcement

a. reinforcement is available for a particular response

Regarding characteristics that influence conditioned responses, which of the following statements is FALSE?

a. In general, the more often the CS is paired with the US, the stronger the CR

b. In general, the more the CS is paired with the US, the more reliable the CR

c. The strongest conditioned responses occur when the CS is presented first and remains present throughout the administration of the US

d. A stronger US will typically lead to faster conditioning than a weaker one

e. A single pairing of the CS and US cannot result in classical conditioning

e. A single pairing of the CS and US cannot result in classical conditioning

Rico attends Technical College where he is using technology to study for the GED. His computer guy to Rico through an inventory of increasingly more challenging questions. If he answered correctly, the questions increase in challenge semicolon if he answers and correctly, the questions decrease in difficulty. Rico is using which application of operant conditioning?

a. Skinner box

b. behavior modification

c. token economy

d. biofeedback

e. programmed instruction

e. programmed instruction

Stimulus generalization occurs when

a. The conditioned response reappears after extinction

b. the conditioned response is displayed following exposure to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus

c. the conditioned response is not displayed following the presentation of the condition stimulus

d. the conditioned stimulus elicits responses that are generally like the conditioned response

e. the conditioned stimulus generalizes to other settings

b. the conditioned response is displayed following exposure to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus

Who is most closely associated with classical conditioning?

a. E.L Thorndike

b. Ivan Pavlov

c. John Garcia

d. B.F. Skinner

e. Rober Rescorla

b. Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov's initial research work was in the study of

a. learning by association with rabbits

b. latent learning with rats

c. observational learning with children

d. digestive processes in dogs

e. conditioning of pigeons

d. digestive processes in dogs

To achieve classical conditioning, you should pair

a. a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus

b. a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus

c. a neutral stimulus with a conditioned response

d. a conditioned stimulus with a conditioned response

e. an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned response

a. a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus

Researchers use the method of successive approximation in the process of

a. insight learning

b. higher-order conditioning

c. conditioning taste aversions

d. shaping

e. extinction

d. shaping

Presentation of a rewarding stimulus serves as _________, while removal of an aversive stimulus serves as ____________.

d. positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement

Velma takes headache medicine to relieve the pain. The medicine serves to remove the pain. This is an example of

a. avoidance conditioning

b. conditioned reinforcement

c. positive reinforcement

d. negative reinforcement

e. superstitious behavior

d. negative reinforcement

Skinner found that coincidental association of a behavior and a reinforcement may result in

a. extinction

b. superstitious behavior

c. stimulus discrimination

d. taste aversions

e. the development of phobias

b. superstitious behavior

Of the following parents giving praise to their child, which is using the most effective strategy?

b. Barney tells his son, "I'm so proud of how well you prepared for you biology test."

Psychologist Albert Bandura believes that children learn aggression through

a. classical conditioning

b. insight learning

c. observing and imitating models

d. latent learning

e. none of these; Bandura believes that aggression is an inborn quality

c. observing and imitating models

Thorndike used the ______ in studying animal learning.

a. Skinner box

b. token economy

c. programmed instruction computer

d. maze

e. puzzle box

e. puzzle box

What is Rosalie Rayner's role in the history of psychology?

e. She was a student assistant who helped Watson with his experiments on classical conditioning in humans

Which of the following is not one of the processes involved in cognitive learning?

a. thinking

b. problem solving

c. mental imaging

d. information processing

e. affective monitoring

e. affective monitoring

Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not revealed in performance when it occurs is referred to as

a. insight learning

b. classical conditioning

c. spontaneous recovery

d. latent learning

e. shaping

d. latent learning

The most surprising element in Garcia's research on taste aversion was that

d. conditioned taste aversion could be developed even when the CS occurred several hours before the US

When two-year-old Clarice was playing in the basement, a large burst of thunder scared her at the same time she saw a spider. Now Clarice has a spider phobia. Clarice's experience is an example of which type of learning?

a. operant conditioning

b. observational learning

c. vicarious learning

d. insight learning

e. classical conditioning

e. classical conditioning

Amita was just grounded by her parents. She is not allowed to use her computer or cell phone, or watch television. Which method of punishment are Amita's parents using?

a. token economy

b. removal of a reinforcer

c. verbal reprimand

d. time-out

e. removal of a negative reinforce

b. removal of a reinforcer

In this type of schedule of reinforcement, a person receives reinforcement for different time periods, and the time periods are not always the same.

a. fixed-interval

b. variable-interval

c. variable-ratio

d. fixed-ration

e. continuous

b. variable-interval

Following his experience in the military, Hans developed a classically conditioned fear response to radio static. After he left the military, the response extinguished. However, after not hearing radio static for several months, Hans again shows the conditioned fear response. Hans's experience is best described by

a. stimulus generalization

b. stimulus discrimination

c. reconditioning

d. spontaneous recovery

e. shaping

d. spontaneous recovery

An acquired fear response is called

a. a conditioned emotional reaction

_________ is the systematic application of operant conditioning to strengthen adaptive behavior and weaken maladaptive behavior.

b. behavior modification

Vlad receives $100 for every ten telemarketing calls he makes. This is an example of a ___________ schedule of reinforcement.

a. fixed ratio

Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?

a. a mother picks up her infant when he cries, which then stops his crying, thereby reducing the mother's level of annoyance

A researcher finds that rats avoid drinking from bottles in a room in which they had received exposure to radiation that subsequently made them ill. This demonstrates

a. stimulus discrimination

b. stimulus generalization

c. conditioned taste aversion

d. fixed interval schedule of reinforcement

e. behavior therapy

c. conditioned taste aversion

All but which of the following are examples of the application of principles of operant conditioning?

a. biofeedback training

b. behavioral modification

c. conditioned immune system responses

d. programmed instruction

e. token economies

c. conditioned immune system responses

In Watson's research with Little Albert, the rat began as the _______ and became the ____________.

c. NS; CS

Stimuli that are naturally reinforcing are referred to as ____________, while stimuli that develop reinforcing properties through association are called___________.

a. indiscriminative stimuli; discriminative stimuli

b. primary reinforcers; secondary reinforcers

c. positive reinforcers; negative reinforcers

d. primary stimuli; secondary stimuli

e. shapers; successive approximators

b. primary reinforcers; secondary reinforcers

Shawn does extremely well on his spelling test in school. His father Praises Shawn for his test for and tells him how smart he is, but he should be able to learn the next list of words even faster. Where giving praise is concerned, Shawn's dad needs to know about the principle of

a. "be specific"

b. "connect by making eye contact"

c. "don't end on a sour note"

d. "avoid empty flattery"

e. "reward the effort, not the outcome"

e. "reward the effort, not the outcome"

Which researcher conducted investigations of latent learning with rats in mazes?

a. Garcia

b. Skinner

c. Thorndike

d. Tolman

e. Kohler

d. Tolman

A child receives a dime for, on average, every 5 dandelions he pulls from the yard. This is an example of a _____ schedule of reinforcement.

a. fixed ratio

b. variable ratio

c. fixed interval

d. variable interval

e. continuous reinforcement

b. variable ratio

Although Hannah knows that praise strengthens desirable behavior in children, she's not sure what specific strategies she should use. Which of the following guidelines should Hannah follow?

a. Reward the outcome, not the effort

b. show a serious expression when giving praise to underscore the importance of the behavior

c. combine physical contact with verbal praise

d. give general praise for all the compliments to build overall self-esteem

e. repeat praise regularly

c. combine physical contact with verbal praise

Classical conditioning can explain the development of all of the following EXCEPT

a. aversions to particular foods

b. phobias

c. positive or negative emotions

d. drug cravings during withdrawal

e. complex, voluntary behaviors

e. complex, voluntary behaviors

Primary reinforcers are

a. the first reinforcers and animal learns

b. the most powerful reinforcers an animal learns

c. intrinsically rewarding

d. reinforcers that are learned through classical conditioning

e. also called conditioned reinforcers

c. intrinsically rewarding

Which pattern best describes what happens once classical conditioning occurs?

a. UR elicits the US

b. CS elicits the CR

c. NS leads to no response

d. NS + US leads to UR

e. US + CS leads to UR

b. CS elicits the CR

Rescorla applies a cognitive perspective in explaining classical conditioning. He focuses on the extent to which the CS ___________ the US.

a. interferes with

b. predicts

c. follows

d. reduces

e. is elicited by

b. predicts

Mr. Bonoir gives students stars on their homework when it is well done. A student can exchange 10 stars for a treat. this is a form of

a. token economy

b. biofeedback

c. shaping

d. insight learning

e. programmed instruction

a. token economy

Which of the following psychologists is most likely to apply a cognitive perspective to research on classical conditioning?

c. Dr. Rivers, who believes that conditioned stimuli are signals or cues organisms use to make predictions about the environment.

regarding research on the classical conditioning of taste aversions, which of the following statements is FALSE?

a. Conditioning of taste aversions can be acquired on the basis of a single pairing of the flavor with a nausea-inducing substance

b. Taste aversions can be acquired when the flavor is presented hours before the nausea-inducing substance

c. Garcia and Koelling's work on taste aversions was no surprise to their colleagues; the research turned out as expected.

d. Garcia has applied his research to solve real-world problems.

e. Conditioned taste aversions have survival benefits.

c. Garcia and Koelling's work on taste aversions was no surprise to their colleagues; the research turned out as expected.

The systematic application of learning principles to help people overcome phobias is called _______ therapy.

a. aversion

b. cognitive

c. conditioning

d. behavior

e. re-exposure

d. behavior

Your significant other gives you a compliment, and you smile at him/her. The probability that s'he will give you another compliment increases. This is an example of which type of learning?

a. latent learning

b. insight learning

c. observational learning

d. classical conditioning

e. instrumental learning

e. instrumental learning

In Garcia's research on taste aversions, what was the neutral stimulus?

a. radiation

b. taste of the water

c. nausea

d. electric shocks

e. taste of the food

b. taste of the water

In Pavlov's studies of classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus was the one that caused

a. an unexpected response

b. a controlled response

c. an unlearned response or reflex

d. a conditioned response or reflex

e. a neutral response

c. an unlearned response or reflex

Which of the following does NOT belong?

a. observation

b. modeling

c. vicarious learning

d. conditioned stimulus

e. imitation

d. conditioned stimulus

Which of the following is the best definition of spontaneous recovery?

e. return of a conditioned response following extinction

"Mental learning" is closest in meaning to which form of learning?

b. cognitive learning

Zorba gives his dog a treat for rolling over. Zorba explains this procedure as a form of

a. conditioned reinforcement

b. punishment

c. negative reinforcement

d. positive reinforcement

e. classical conditioning

d. positive reinforcement

To which area of human behavior was Thorndike particularly excited about applying to principles of animal learning?

a. parenting

b. law enforcement

c. medicine

d. advertising

e. education

e. education

In Watson's research with Little Albert, what was the CS?

a. a loud sound

b. a white rat

c. an electric shock

d. a spanking

e. the Santa Claus mask

b. a white rat

Behaviors that result in satisfying effects are strengthened and behaviors that result in discomfort are weakened. This statement is explained by

a. the Law of Effect

A puff of air to they eye causes a reflexive blink. If you precede the puff of air with a buzzer, eventually the buzzer will cause a blink. In this example, the buzzer begins as the __________ and eventually becomes the ____________.

a. neutral stimulus; conditioned stimulus

Caroline has an "Aha!" experience when solving a problem. Caroline most likely experienced which type of learning?

a. latent learning

b. insight learning

c. observational learning

d. operant conditioning

e. classical conditioning

b. insight learning

Following extinction, a conditioned response can be learned again more quickly than it was learned originally. This process if called

a. spontaneous recovery

b. generalization

c. discrimination

d. reconditioning

e. shaping

d. reconditioning

Which of the following can best be described as an example of insight learning?

c. Dr. Caruthers, who has been working on a particularly thorny problem in microbiology for a number of months. She then suddenly realizes the solution to her problem, seemingly without effort.

Through classical conditioning, Alyce has developed a fear of mice. She also shows fear response to gerbils and hamsters. Alyce is demonstrating

a. stimulus generalization

Operant conditioning is also known as

a. classical conditioning

b. vicarious learning

c. observational learning

d. instrumental learning

e. cognitive learning

d. instrumental learning

Which of the following people is on a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement?

a. Philip, who is playing a slot machine at the casino

The Law of Effect was proposed by

a. Pavlov

b. Skinner

c. Thorndike

d. Watson

e. Tolman

c. Thorndike

Regarding operant conditioning, which of the following statements is FALSE?

a. positive reinforcement lead s to strengthening of response, whereas negative reinforcement leads to weakening of response

b. discriminative stimuli set the stage for reinforcement

c. organisms are capable of learning complex behaviors through reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behaviors

d. some reinforcers are rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs, whereas others acquire reward value through experience.

e. extinction is achieved by no longer reinforcing the desired response

a. positive reinforcement lead s to strengthening of response, whereas negative reinforcement leads to weakening of response

Thorndike is to ________ as Skinner is to _______.

e. Law of Effect; operant conditioning

Regarding the timing of the CS and the US in classical conditioning, the STRONGEST conditioned response occurs when the

a. CS and US are presented simultaneously

b. CS is presented first and remains on during the presentation of the US

c. CS is presented first and is terminated before the presentation of the US

d. US is presented first and is terminated before the presentation of the CS

e. US is presented first and remains on during the presentation of the CS

e. US is presented first and remains on during the presentation of the CS

Learning in which a previously neutral stimulus becomes capable of triggering a reflexive response is called

a. operant conditioning

b. classical conditioning

c. instrumental conditioning

d. stimulus-response learning

e. spontaneous recovery

b. classical conditioning

When Sara misbehaves, her parents respond by not allowing her to watch TV for a certain amount of time. Her parents are using which method of discipline?

a. escape learning

b. avoidance learning

c. negative reinforcement

d. positive reinforcement

e. punishment

c. negative reinforcement

All of the following are concerns about the use of punishment EXCEPT

a. it suppresses rather than eliminates behavior

b. it may model inappropriate behavior

c. it is difficult to administer

d. it does not teach new behaviors

e. it can lead to strong negative emotions

c. it is difficult to administer

In an example reported in your text, a man is trapped behind a refrigerator and nearly suffocated. Subsequently, he has a phobia of tight, closed spaces and is afraid to ride on small, crowded elevators. However he has no fear of large, uncrowded elevator rides. The man's fear small elevators is an example of ______________ and his lack of fear toward large elevator is an example of _______________.

c. stimulus generalization; stimulus discrimination

Cognitive learning involves

a. mental processes that cannot be directly observed

b. higher-order conditioning

c. creative processes

d. focused attention

e. learning that occurs through repeated practice

a. mental processes that cannot be directly observed

Which of the following can best be describes as an example of latent learning?

b. Samantha, who has wandered through the downtown area a number of times without having a particular goal in mind. When she is asked to take a friend to a particular restaurant in that neighborhood, she almost immediately picks the shortest route.

Regarding classical condition, which of the following statements if FALSE?

a. stimulus generalization helps explain the development of phobias

b. in extinction, conditioned responses gradually weaken and disappear

c. by learning to differentiate among related stimuli animals are able to distinguish between threatening and nonthreatening situations

d. stimulus generalization has survival value because it allows animals to generalize learned responses to originally threatening stimuli

e. extinguished responses are forgotten if they are not reinforced

e. extinguished responses are forgotten if they are not reinforced

Watson investigated the classical conditioning of which type of responses?

a. anger

b. sadness

c. happiness

d. fear

e. sexual arousal

d. fear

Which of the following pairing is correct?

a. Garica - conditioned emotional response

b. Thorndike - schedules of reinforcement

c. Skinner - operant conditioning

d. Watson - classical conditioning of reflexes

e. Pavlov - classical conditioning of emotions

c. Skinner - operant conditioning

Paul has turned to alcohol in order to flee from the problems in his marriage. We can explain his behavior as a form of

b. escape learning

LaGina walks into a room and feels as if she has been there before even though she knows that she has not. LaGina's experience of deja vu may be explained by which concept from classical conditioning?

a. extinction

b. stimulus generalization

c. stimulus discrimination

d. spontaneous recovery

e. reconditioning

b. stimulus generalization

"When in Rome, do as the Romans do," underscores the importance of ________ in learning.

a. modeling

b. latency

c. insight

d. shaping

e. reinforcement

a. modeling

In an application of classical conditioning principles reported in the ext, how were sheep ranches able to protect their sheep from coyotes?

d. Sheep carcasses were injected with a poison that would sicken but not kill the coyotes

In applying a cognitive perspective to explaining classical conditioning, a psychologist would emphasize the extent to which the CS ___________ the US.

a. interferes wit

b. predicts

c. follows

d. reduces

e. is elicited by

b. predicts