AP Government UNIT 2 REVIEW [Everything You Need to Know!]
Unit 2 of AP Government is about the three branches of government and how they interact with each other.
The legislative branch, executive branch, judicial branch, and bureaucracy will be discussed.
The video is part of an interview packet that includes exclusive video content, practice questions, course questions and answers, and everything needed to do well in the course and exam.
Congress is made up of two houses: the House of Representatives and the Senate.
The House of Representatives is apportioned by the population of each state, with more populous states having more representatives.
Representatives in the House serve two-year terms and are closely tied to the people they represent.
The Senate has 100 senators, with each state having two senators.
Senators serve for six years and have more constitutional responsibilities than House members.
Both houses of Congress are required to pass legislation, and coalitions are formed to make the process more efficient.
Senate coalitions tend to be longer-lasting and more durable than House coalitions.
Congress gets its power from enumerated powers and implied powers.
Enumerated powers are explicitly listed in Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution, including federal funding, foreign policy, and military legislation.
Congress has the power to raise revenue through taxation, coin money, pass a federal budget, declare war, raise armies, and direct funding to the armed forces.
Congress also has implied powers, which allow them to pass laws required by the enumerated powers.
The necessary and proper clause, or elastic clause, justifies Congress's implied powers.
Leadership structures in Congress include the Speaker of the House, Majority and Minority Leaders, and Whips in the House, and the President of the Senate, President Pro Tempore, Majority Leader, and Whips in the Senate.
Committees play a crucial role in getting legislative work done in both houses of Congress.
Small groups of representatives debate and draft legislation
Four types of committees:
Standing committees: permanent committees that do essential work
Joint committees: have members from both the House and the Senate
Select committees: temporary committees created for specific purposes
Conference committees: resolve differences between House and Senate versions of a bill
Majority party holds majority of seats on each committee
Senate president asks for unanimous agreement to limit debate
One senator can object and stall the bill (hold)
Writers added to bills for personal agenda or to help get the bill passed
Pork barrel spending: funds earmarked for special projects in a representative's district
Example: "Bridge to Nowhere" bill with added funds for a bridge in Alaska
Logrolling: representatives agree to vote for each other's bills
System of congressional back scratching
Congress passes federal budget
Two categories of spending: mandatory and discretionary
Mandatory spending: required by law (e.g., entitlement spending)
Discretionary spending: funds left over after mandatory spending
Increase in entitlement spending leads to decrease in discretionary spending
Two ways to increase discretionary spending: raise taxes or approve deficit spending
Ideological divisions lead to political polarization and gridlock
Majority party in both houses can push legislation through quickly
Divided government slows down the legislative process
President Obama, a Democrat, wanted to appoint a liberal judge to the Supreme Court in 2016.
The Republican-dominated Senate argued that they should wait for the outcome of the election before confirming a new judge.
The Senate did not hold a confirmation hearing, citing Obama's status as a lame duck president.
In 2020, Republican President Donald Trump had the opportunity to appoint a new justice.
The Republican Senate rushed the confirmation through without waiting for the outcome of the election.
This demonstrates how a divided government can slow things down or a unified government can speed things up.
Some representatives follow the trustee model, voting according to their best judgment.
Example: Republican Senator Mitt Romney voted to remove Donald Trump from office, despite opposition from his constituency.
Other representatives follow the delegate model, voting with the will of the people.
The delegate model is more common in the House, where representatives have shorter terms and are more accountable to the people.
Some representatives adopt the politico model, blending the trustee and delegate models depending on the situation.
Every 10 years, a census is taken to determine the population and distribution of representatives.
Reapportionment is the allocation of representative seats based on population.
Redistricting is the redrawing of boundaries for congressional districts.
Redistricting and gerrymandering can affect the efficiency of congressional work.
The census is conducted every 10 years to determine the population and distribution of representatives.
Reapportionment is the allocation of representative seats based on population.
Baker v. Carr (1962) dealt with the redrawing of districts in Tennessee.
The Supreme Court ruled that the unequal distribution of voting power violated the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment.
This case established the principle of "one person, one vote" and confirmed that apportionment issues are justiciable.
Gerrymandering is the drawing of districts to favor one group over another.
Partisan gerrymandering involves drawing districts to give a certain party an advantage.
Shaw v. Reno (1993) dealt with racial gerrymandering, drawing districts based on race.
The court ruled that drawing districts solely based on race, even for historically discriminated people, was unconstitutional.
Shaw v. Reno (1993) dealt with the drawing of districts based on race.
The court ruled that drawing districts solely based on race, even for historically discriminated people, was unconstitutional.
Presidents come into office with a set of policies they want to enact.
Congress has the constitutional authority to pass laws, not the president.
Presidents use formal and informal powers to implement their policy agenda.
Presidents can exercise informal powers with the veto.
By threatening to veto, the president can influence Congress to modify the bill to align with their policy agenda.
The president can employ the pocket veto when a bill does not align with their policy agenda.
If there are less than 10 days left in the congressional session, the president can let the session expire, effectively vetoing the bill.
The president is the commander-in-chief of the United States armed forces.
The power to declare war belongs to Congress, but the president can authorize military actions without a formal declaration of war.
Example: President Obama authorized the killing of Osama bin Laden by Navy SEALs in 2011.
The president can enter into executive agreements with other heads of state for foreign policy matters.
Executive agreements are like contracts between presidents or monarchs
Example: President Roosevelt made an executive agreement with Britain before World War II
President has the power of bargaining and persuasion
President can use their influence to persuade the people according to their policy agenda
Executive orders are directives from the president with the force of federal law
President can use executive orders to direct the actions of the federal bureaucracy and military
Example: President Trump used an executive order to move money for building a wall on the U.S.-Mexico border
President can issue a signing statement when signing a bill into law
Signing statement informs how the executive branch interprets the law and how the president intends to execute it
President appoints ambassadors to other countries
Senate usually confirms these appointments without much drama
President appoints White House staff without Senate confirmation
Supreme Court nominations can be highly contentious
Presidents appoint judges who align with their policy agenda
Judges hold their positions for life, impacting policy decisions long after the president leaves office
The 22nd Amendment limits the number of terms a president can serve to two
George Washington set the precedent by stepping down after two terms
Over time, the power of the president has expanded
Andrew Jackson expanded executive power, believing the president represented the people
Abraham Lincoln assumed more power during the Civil War, suspending habeas corpus
Franklin Roosevelt expanded executive power with the New Deal programs and served four terms
Presidential communication is a powerful tool
Teddy Roosevelt referred to the presidency as a "bully pulpit"
Presidents can use their influence to communicate directly with the people
State of the Union address is an important tool for presidential communication
Presidents used to give State of the Union addresses filtered through newspaper editors
Franklin Roosevelt used radio to talk directly to the people through fireside chats
John F. Kennedy used television for live press conferences and created a Presidential Communication Office
Barack Obama used social media to communicate directly with supporters
Donald Trump used Twitter extensively and earned the nickname "Tweeter-in-Chief"
The federal court system has three levels: U.S. District Courts, U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, and the Supreme Court
The Supreme Court is explicitly mentioned in the Constitution
The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review to declare laws constitutional or unconstitutional
Marbury v. Madison in 1803 firmly established the power of judicial review
Precedents are binding templates for future decisions
Precedents are difficult to overturn due to the principle of stare decisis (let the decision stand)
Stare decisis means that the court often rules in the same way as previous cases
Precedents can be overturned, as seen in Brown v. Board of Education
The Supreme Court is less bound to precedents than lower courts
Precedents guide present decisions
Judicial activism considers the broader effects of a decision on society
Judicial restraint believes judges should not make policy
Ideology of judges plays a role in decisions
Presidents appoint judges aligned with their political sympathies
Conservative presidents appoint conservative judges in hopes of overturning precedents
Controversial decisions can lead to questioning the legitimacy of the court's power
The president can appoint new judges
Lack of enforcement by the president
Congress can check the power of the judicial branch through legislation
Congress can limit the court's jurisdiction through constitutional amendments
The bureaucracy is not a separate branch of government
Sometimes referred to as the fourth branch of government
Bureaucracy falls under the authority of the executive branch
Structure of the bureaucracy:
Cabinet secretaries are the highest level of authority
Departments are further subdivided into agencies
Commissions are regulatory groups
Government corporations are a hybrid between business and government agency
Work of the bureaucracy:
Write and enforce regulations
Delegated discretionary authority
Compliance monitoring
Issue fines when laws are violated
Testify before Congress
Iron triangle relationship between bureaucratic agencies, congressional committees, and interest groups
Bureaucratic agencies have delegated discretionary authority
Authority given by Congress to make rules and carry out laws
Bureaucratic agencies establish rules for industries
Responsible for ensuring compliance with rules
Iron triangle relationship between bureaucratic agencies, congressional committees, and interest groups
Mutual benefit and cooperation between the three groups
Congress has the power of the purse
Allocates funds to different agencies
Agencies cannot spend money without authorization
Can fire and appoint leaders in cabinet and agency positions
Influence over regulatory commission heads
Can initiate reviews and changes in agency missions and objectives
Citizens can challenge bureaucratic decisions in court
Court upholds agency authority unless violating a law
Agencies and commissions create rules with the force of law but are not elected representatives
Lack of accountability to the people
Bureaucracy jobs were awarded based on the patronage system
Changed after President Garfield's assassination
Pendleton Civil Service Act created a merit system for bureaucratic appointments
Competitive examination required for bureaucratic jobs
Continued reforms in the 20th century for a more professional and neutral
Unit 2 of AP Government is about the three branches of government and how they interact with each other.
The legislative branch, executive branch, judicial branch, and bureaucracy will be discussed.
The video is part of an interview packet that includes exclusive video content, practice questions, course questions and answers, and everything needed to do well in the course and exam.
Congress is made up of two houses: the House of Representatives and the Senate.
The House of Representatives is apportioned by the population of each state, with more populous states having more representatives.
Representatives in the House serve two-year terms and are closely tied to the people they represent.
The Senate has 100 senators, with each state having two senators.
Senators serve for six years and have more constitutional responsibilities than House members.
Both houses of Congress are required to pass legislation, and coalitions are formed to make the process more efficient.
Senate coalitions tend to be longer-lasting and more durable than House coalitions.
Congress gets its power from enumerated powers and implied powers.
Enumerated powers are explicitly listed in Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution, including federal funding, foreign policy, and military legislation.
Congress has the power to raise revenue through taxation, coin money, pass a federal budget, declare war, raise armies, and direct funding to the armed forces.
Congress also has implied powers, which allow them to pass laws required by the enumerated powers.
The necessary and proper clause, or elastic clause, justifies Congress's implied powers.
Leadership structures in Congress include the Speaker of the House, Majority and Minority Leaders, and Whips in the House, and the President of the Senate, President Pro Tempore, Majority Leader, and Whips in the Senate.
Committees play a crucial role in getting legislative work done in both houses of Congress.
Small groups of representatives debate and draft legislation
Four types of committees:
Standing committees: permanent committees that do essential work
Joint committees: have members from both the House and the Senate
Select committees: temporary committees created for specific purposes
Conference committees: resolve differences between House and Senate versions of a bill
Majority party holds majority of seats on each committee
Senate president asks for unanimous agreement to limit debate
One senator can object and stall the bill (hold)
Writers added to bills for personal agenda or to help get the bill passed
Pork barrel spending: funds earmarked for special projects in a representative's district
Example: "Bridge to Nowhere" bill with added funds for a bridge in Alaska
Logrolling: representatives agree to vote for each other's bills
System of congressional back scratching
Congress passes federal budget
Two categories of spending: mandatory and discretionary
Mandatory spending: required by law (e.g., entitlement spending)
Discretionary spending: funds left over after mandatory spending
Increase in entitlement spending leads to decrease in discretionary spending
Two ways to increase discretionary spending: raise taxes or approve deficit spending
Ideological divisions lead to political polarization and gridlock
Majority party in both houses can push legislation through quickly
Divided government slows down the legislative process
President Obama, a Democrat, wanted to appoint a liberal judge to the Supreme Court in 2016.
The Republican-dominated Senate argued that they should wait for the outcome of the election before confirming a new judge.
The Senate did not hold a confirmation hearing, citing Obama's status as a lame duck president.
In 2020, Republican President Donald Trump had the opportunity to appoint a new justice.
The Republican Senate rushed the confirmation through without waiting for the outcome of the election.
This demonstrates how a divided government can slow things down or a unified government can speed things up.
Some representatives follow the trustee model, voting according to their best judgment.
Example: Republican Senator Mitt Romney voted to remove Donald Trump from office, despite opposition from his constituency.
Other representatives follow the delegate model, voting with the will of the people.
The delegate model is more common in the House, where representatives have shorter terms and are more accountable to the people.
Some representatives adopt the politico model, blending the trustee and delegate models depending on the situation.
Every 10 years, a census is taken to determine the population and distribution of representatives.
Reapportionment is the allocation of representative seats based on population.
Redistricting is the redrawing of boundaries for congressional districts.
Redistricting and gerrymandering can affect the efficiency of congressional work.
The census is conducted every 10 years to determine the population and distribution of representatives.
Reapportionment is the allocation of representative seats based on population.
Baker v. Carr (1962) dealt with the redrawing of districts in Tennessee.
The Supreme Court ruled that the unequal distribution of voting power violated the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment.
This case established the principle of "one person, one vote" and confirmed that apportionment issues are justiciable.
Gerrymandering is the drawing of districts to favor one group over another.
Partisan gerrymandering involves drawing districts to give a certain party an advantage.
Shaw v. Reno (1993) dealt with racial gerrymandering, drawing districts based on race.
The court ruled that drawing districts solely based on race, even for historically discriminated people, was unconstitutional.
Shaw v. Reno (1993) dealt with the drawing of districts based on race.
The court ruled that drawing districts solely based on race, even for historically discriminated people, was unconstitutional.
Presidents come into office with a set of policies they want to enact.
Congress has the constitutional authority to pass laws, not the president.
Presidents use formal and informal powers to implement their policy agenda.
Presidents can exercise informal powers with the veto.
By threatening to veto, the president can influence Congress to modify the bill to align with their policy agenda.
The president can employ the pocket veto when a bill does not align with their policy agenda.
If there are less than 10 days left in the congressional session, the president can let the session expire, effectively vetoing the bill.
The president is the commander-in-chief of the United States armed forces.
The power to declare war belongs to Congress, but the president can authorize military actions without a formal declaration of war.
Example: President Obama authorized the killing of Osama bin Laden by Navy SEALs in 2011.
The president can enter into executive agreements with other heads of state for foreign policy matters.
Executive agreements are like contracts between presidents or monarchs
Example: President Roosevelt made an executive agreement with Britain before World War II
President has the power of bargaining and persuasion
President can use their influence to persuade the people according to their policy agenda
Executive orders are directives from the president with the force of federal law
President can use executive orders to direct the actions of the federal bureaucracy and military
Example: President Trump used an executive order to move money for building a wall on the U.S.-Mexico border
President can issue a signing statement when signing a bill into law
Signing statement informs how the executive branch interprets the law and how the president intends to execute it
President appoints ambassadors to other countries
Senate usually confirms these appointments without much drama
President appoints White House staff without Senate confirmation
Supreme Court nominations can be highly contentious
Presidents appoint judges who align with their policy agenda
Judges hold their positions for life, impacting policy decisions long after the president leaves office
The 22nd Amendment limits the number of terms a president can serve to two
George Washington set the precedent by stepping down after two terms
Over time, the power of the president has expanded
Andrew Jackson expanded executive power, believing the president represented the people
Abraham Lincoln assumed more power during the Civil War, suspending habeas corpus
Franklin Roosevelt expanded executive power with the New Deal programs and served four terms
Presidential communication is a powerful tool
Teddy Roosevelt referred to the presidency as a "bully pulpit"
Presidents can use their influence to communicate directly with the people
State of the Union address is an important tool for presidential communication
Presidents used to give State of the Union addresses filtered through newspaper editors
Franklin Roosevelt used radio to talk directly to the people through fireside chats
John F. Kennedy used television for live press conferences and created a Presidential Communication Office
Barack Obama used social media to communicate directly with supporters
Donald Trump used Twitter extensively and earned the nickname "Tweeter-in-Chief"
The federal court system has three levels: U.S. District Courts, U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, and the Supreme Court
The Supreme Court is explicitly mentioned in the Constitution
The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review to declare laws constitutional or unconstitutional
Marbury v. Madison in 1803 firmly established the power of judicial review
Precedents are binding templates for future decisions
Precedents are difficult to overturn due to the principle of stare decisis (let the decision stand)
Stare decisis means that the court often rules in the same way as previous cases
Precedents can be overturned, as seen in Brown v. Board of Education
The Supreme Court is less bound to precedents than lower courts
Precedents guide present decisions
Judicial activism considers the broader effects of a decision on society
Judicial restraint believes judges should not make policy
Ideology of judges plays a role in decisions
Presidents appoint judges aligned with their political sympathies
Conservative presidents appoint conservative judges in hopes of overturning precedents
Controversial decisions can lead to questioning the legitimacy of the court's power
The president can appoint new judges
Lack of enforcement by the president
Congress can check the power of the judicial branch through legislation
Congress can limit the court's jurisdiction through constitutional amendments
The bureaucracy is not a separate branch of government
Sometimes referred to as the fourth branch of government
Bureaucracy falls under the authority of the executive branch
Structure of the bureaucracy:
Cabinet secretaries are the highest level of authority
Departments are further subdivided into agencies
Commissions are regulatory groups
Government corporations are a hybrid between business and government agency
Work of the bureaucracy:
Write and enforce regulations
Delegated discretionary authority
Compliance monitoring
Issue fines when laws are violated
Testify before Congress
Iron triangle relationship between bureaucratic agencies, congressional committees, and interest groups
Bureaucratic agencies have delegated discretionary authority
Authority given by Congress to make rules and carry out laws
Bureaucratic agencies establish rules for industries
Responsible for ensuring compliance with rules
Iron triangle relationship between bureaucratic agencies, congressional committees, and interest groups
Mutual benefit and cooperation between the three groups
Congress has the power of the purse
Allocates funds to different agencies
Agencies cannot spend money without authorization
Can fire and appoint leaders in cabinet and agency positions
Influence over regulatory commission heads
Can initiate reviews and changes in agency missions and objectives
Citizens can challenge bureaucratic decisions in court
Court upholds agency authority unless violating a law
Agencies and commissions create rules with the force of law but are not elected representatives
Lack of accountability to the people
Bureaucracy jobs were awarded based on the patronage system
Changed after President Garfield's assassination
Pendleton Civil Service Act created a merit system for bureaucratic appointments
Competitive examination required for bureaucratic jobs
Continued reforms in the 20th century for a more professional and neutral
