AP PSYCH EXAM

Somatic Nervous System

includes 5 senses and controls voluntary muscle movements - consciously

neural cells

that process and transmit information throughout the body.

steps of neural firing

resting potential —> threshold —> depolarization —> action potential —> repolarization —> refractory period —> returns to resting potential

resting potential

neuron is at rest, with the inside of the cell negatively charged compared to the outside of the cell, sodium (Na) is outside and potassium (K) is inside, the cell maintains this state

threshold

a stimulus causes the neuron to depolarize slightly, if signal is strong enough and meets this threshold, the neuron will fire

depolarization

sodium channels open and (Na) rushes into the neuron, making it more positive, this begins the action potential (electrical impulse)

action potential

the electrical charge travels down the axon, the neuron is now actively firing,

repolarization

after the peak of action potential, potassium channels open and (K) rushes out of the neuron, restoring the negative charge inside, sodium channels close

refractory period

the neuron briefly becomes more negative than its resting potential, cannot fire again until it resets

Myasthenia Gravis

disorder that affects communication between nerves and muscles, leading to muscle weakness.

norepinephrine

a neurotransmitter involved in arousal, mood regulation, and the body's fight-or-flight response - high energy

agonists

increase effectiveness of neurotransmitter - stimulants

antagonists

decrease effectiveness of neurotransmitter - depressants

reuptake

the process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the presynaptic neuron after being released into the synaptic cleft.

hallucinogens

sense things that aren’t there, can lead to panic - marijuana/LSD

opioids

function as a depressant + addictive - heroin

reticular activating system

network of nerve bodies + fibers within brainstem - arousal, alternes, sleep-wake cycle

cerebral cortex

the outer layer of the brain responsible for higher-order functions such as thought, reasoning, and decision-making.

pituitary gland

produces and regulates hormones, master gland, “petite body”

somatosensory cortex

processes the 5 senses, inside parietal lobe

contralateral hemispheric lateralization

the tendency for each hemisphere of the brain to control the opposite side of the body, affecting motor skills and sensory perception.

EEG

a test that detects electrical activity in the brain, used to diagnose conditions such as epilepsy and sleep disorders.

fMRI

a neuroimaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow, allowing for real-time visualization of brain function.

lesioning

destroying parts of the brain to understand its functions

hypnogogic sensations

NREM1, sensations you think are real, exp. thinking you are falling

Stages of Sleep

NREM1 - 5-10 min, alpha waves, body starts to relax, NREM2 - 10-20 min, theta waves, bursts of neural activity, NREM3 - deep sleep, delta waves, restorative processes, REM - dreaming, brain activity similar to awake.

activation synthesis theory

dreams are brains way of making sense of neural activity

consolidation theory

dreams help process and strengthen memories

REM sleep behavior disorder

acting out dreams during sleep - self injury

somnambulism

a sleep disorder characterized by walking or performing other complex behaviors while in a state of sleep.

transduction

the process of converting sensory information into a neural signal.

absolute threshold

the minimum level of stimulus intensity needed for detection by a sensory system.

just noticeable difference

the smallest difference in stimulus intensity that a person can detect 50% of the time.

synesthesia

one sense is experienced through another - seeing colors when hearing music

retina

layer at back of the eye that receives light

lens

the transparent structure behind the iris that refracts light to focus images on the retina.

trichromatic theory

people can see color because of different light wavelengths

opponent-process theory

theory that suggests color perception is controlled by the activity of two opponent systems: red-green and blue-yellow.

photoreceptor cells

specialized cells in the retina that detect light and convert it into neural signals.

fovea

the small central pit in the retina responsible for sharp central vision.

ganglion cells

neurons located in the retina that receive visual information from photoreceptor cells and transmit it to the brain via the optic nerve.

dichromatism

a type of color blindness where individuals can only perceive two colors.

monochromatism

a severe form of color blindness where individuals see only shades of gray.

prosopagnosia

cant recognize faces

sound waves

are vibrations that travel through air, liquids, or solids, allowing us to perceive sound.

pitch and amplitude

high pitch = fast waves

low pitch = slow waves

place theory

is a theory of hearing that explains how we perceive different pitches based on the location of vibrating hair cells in the cochlea.

volley theory

when sound is too high pitched, groups of neurons take turns firing

frequency theory

the pitch you hear depends on how fast the cochlea vibrates

conduction deafness

is a type of hearing loss caused by problems in the outer or middle ear that prevent sound from reaching the inner ear.

sensorineural deafness

decline in clarity, loudness, and range of sound

olfactory system

specialized nerve cells for odor molecules - certain smells trigger memories

pheromones

chemicals released by humans that affect other humans

gustation

sense of taste

vestibular sense

system that contributes to balance and spatial orientation.

semicircular canals

structures in the inner ear that help maintain balance and detect rotational movements.

genetic predisposition

more likely to develop a trait because of your genes

bottom-up processing

when stimuli/experiences are complex and not familiar, so you start from the bottom and work your way up to process

top-down processing

using PRIOR knowledge and experiences to interpret info - can lead to overlooking details and info

perceptual principles

proximity, similarity, closure, figure and ground

gestalt phsycology

helps explain how e organize our perceptual worldinto meaningful wholes and patterns.

closure

how our brain fits missing info to perceive a complete object or picture, even if some parts are missing.

figure and ground

a visual principle that distinguishes an object from its background, allowing us to perceive shapes and forms.

proximity

a principle of grouping that states objects that are close together in space tend to be perceived as a group or unit.

similarity

how we see a group of similar objects/patterns as one unit

change blindness

when attention is divided and you fail to notice changes in the environment

binocular depth cues

visual information from both eyes that helps perceive depth and distance.

retinal disparity

when your two eyes see two different images - covering one eye with one hand

convergence

when we look at something close and eyes move inward

monocular depth cues

visual cues that require only one eye to perceive depth and distance.

relative clarity

the principle that objects closer to us appear clearer and more detailed than those far away.

relative size

the principle that objects smaller in our visual field are perceived as being farther away than larger objects.

texture gradient

clear objects = closer

blurry objects = further

linear perspective

parallel lines converge in distance

interposition

when one object blocks another

visual perceptual constancy

ability to see objects as the same size, shape, or color even when it changes

apparent movement

the illusion that stationary objects appear to move due to changes in visual perception.

goal-directed behaviors

actions taken to achieve a specific goal or outcome.

elaborative rehearsal

connecting new info to smth you already knowto enhance memory retention.

psychodynamic theorists

focus on unconscious processes and childhood experiences that shape behavior and personality.

misinformation effect

altering a memory with wrong info

imagination inflation

is a phenomenon where vivid imagining of an event can increase confidence that the event actually occurred, often leading to false memories.

validity

is it testing the right info?

reliability

is it consistent?

construct validity

is the degree to which a test measures the theoretical construct it claims to measure, ensuring accurate representation of the concept.

predictive validity

predicts future preformance

test-retest reliability

consistency of test results overtime when the same person takes the test

split-half reliability

consistency of results within the test itself

jean piagets stages of development in order and what they entail

1. sensorimotor: 0-2,

   understanding the world through sensory experiences and actions.

   preoperational: 2-7,

   
   development of language and symbolic thinking, egocentrism present, theory of mind, animism

   concrete operational: 7-11,

   
   logical thinking about concrete events, mastery of conservation, reversibility

   formal operational: 12+,
   

   abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking.

phonemes

smallest unit of sound - first sound an infant makes - “bu” in bat

morphemes

smallest unit of meaning in a language - dog

grammar

set of rules that govern how words can be combined

syntax

the set of rules that dictates the arrangement of words to create meaningful sentences.

ecological systems theory

how environments influence an individual development

microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem

macrosystem

big picture system, society, societal values, laws - culture you are apart of

authoritarian

low warmth + high punishment - low self esteemand difficulty in social relationships.

authoritative

high warmth + high punishment - BEST practices for child development, fostering independence and self-regulation.

avoidant attachment

avoid and ignore parents and show little emotion when caregiver leavesor returns. Difficulty forming close relationships later in life.

anxious attatchment

a pattern of attachment characterized by excessive distress when separated from caregivers and difficulty seeking comfort upon their return.

disorganized attachment

a style of attachment marked by inconsistent behavior toward caregivers, often resulting from trauma or neglect.