AP Psych Unit 10 - Developmental Psychology

Nature vs Nurture Debate

the long-standing debate in psychology about whether genetic factors or environmental factors have a greater influence on behavior and development

Developmental Maturation

social, cognitive, and behavioral development that is acquired through biological growth processes

Stage Theory

explanations of developmental milestones as sequential steps of a biological calendar

Critical Periods

a specific window of time early in life where a human is most receptive to learning certain skills or abilities related to cognitive development and where exposure to necessary stimuli is important for optimal development

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life

Cross-Sectional Method

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

Longitudinal Method

research that follows and tests the same people over long periods of time

Zygotic Phase (Zygote)

at conception when the sperm fertilizes the egg

Embryotic Phase (Embryo)

the period from implantation to about the eighth week after conception (tiny clump of cells)

Fetal Phase (Fetus)

A stage in human development that follows the embryonic stage. It begins from the ninth week after fertilization until birth.

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development

Authoritarian Parenting Style

parents impose harsh or strict rules and expect obedience

Permissive Parenting Style

parents who do not impose many rules and use little punishment

Neglectful Parenting Style

parents who are inattentive and do not seek a relationship with their children

Schemas

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Schematic Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Schematic Accommodation

adapting our current schemas to incorporate new information

Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage

2. Preoperational Stage

3. Concrete Operational Stage

4. The Formal Operation Stage

Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2 years)

• Jean Piaget

• sensory development and stimuli exploration

• development of basic schemas

• object permanence

Piaget’s Stage from birth to 2 years…

…is the Sensorimotor Stage

Object Permanence

awareness that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen; usually mastered at 8-9 months

Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years)

• Jean Piaget

• development of symbols and language

• operational cognition, egocentric cognition, animistic cognition, artificialistic cognition

Piaget’s Stage from 2 - 7 years…

…is the Preoperational Stage

Operational Cognition

sequential mental processing; comprehension of patterns and symmetry; arranging thoughts and tasks in order

Egocentric Cognition (Egocentrism)

inability to understand concepts through a perspective other than oneself; inability to empathize; assumes everyone feels the same as them

Animistic Cognition (Animism)

believing all things are living and have human characteristics

Artificialistic Cognition (Artificialism)

assuming that environmental events are due to human actions and technology children are familiar with

Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11 years)

• Jean Piaget

• development of reversibility and conservation

Piaget’s Stage from 7 - 11 years…

…is the Concrete Operational Stage

Reversibility

reversing the sequential operators developed via operational cognition (ex. counting backwards)

Conservation

understanding the concept that the value of an object remains constant despite changes in form

Formal Operation Stage (11 - adulthood)

• Jean Piaget

• cognitive maturity

• able to think logically about abstract concepts

• think hypothetically

• metacognition

Piaget’s Stage from 11 - adulthood…

…is the Formal Operation Stage

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

• Pre-Conventional Level

  1. Punishment / Obedience Orientation

  2. Instrumental Exchange Orientation

• Conventional Level

  3. Good Child Orientation

  4. Law and Order Orientation

• Post-Conventional Level

  5. Social Contract Orientation

  6. Universal Ethics Orientation

Pre-Conventional Level (birth to adolescence)

• Kohlberg

• focus on individual / self

• self-centered moral judgement based upon individual interests and learned behaviors

Punishment / Obedience Orientation

• Pre-Conventional Level

• acknowledging the existence of social rules

• rules are obeyed to avoid punishment

Instrumental Exchange Orientation

• Pre-Conventional Level

• acceptance of social rules

• rules are obeyed in anticipation of reward

Conventional Level (adolescence to young adulthood)

• Kohlberg

• focus on altruism

• moral and ethical dilemas

Good Child Orientation

• Conventional Level

• rules and laws are perceived as necessary evils

• people should be judged by their interiors and not necessarily by their action

Law & Order Orientation

• Conventional Level

• laws are essential to preserve social order

• violations of law lead to societal decay

Post-Conventional Level (young adulthood - beyond)

• Kohlberg

• universal humanity

• rules and moral compass of right vs. wrong are

  largely influenced by essential human rights

Social Contract Orientation

• Post-Conventional Level

• human nature is inherently designed to help other people

• rules and laws provide social welfare / civic protection

• laws are beneficial

Universal Ethics Orientation

• Post-Conventional Level

• moral reasoning reflects universal / spiritual consciousness of right and wrong

Sigmund Freud Stages of Development

1. Oral Stage

2. Anal Stage

3. Phallic Stage

4. Latency Stage

5. Genital Stage

Temperamental Disposition

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Identity

our sense of self

Social Identity

how individuals identify themselves in relation to others according to their group membership

Oral Stage (birth - 18 months)

• Freud

• sensory development and stimuli arousal is satisfied primarily with the mouth as an extension of the rooting reflex

Anal Stage (1 ½ - 2 ½ years)

• Freud

• development of bodily control as an extension of development of self control

Phallic Stage (2 ½ - 5 years)

• Freud

• Oedipus Complex

• Electra Complex

Latency Stage (5 - 12 years / puberty)

• Freud

• sexual impulses for parent of opposite sex dissolve

• resentment towards parent of same sex is reversed

• establishment of gender norms and roles

Genital Stage (puberty - adulthood)

• Freud

• manifestation of all unresolved childhood conflicts

• personalities become shaped and made permanent

Erik Erikson’s Stage Theory

1. Trust vs Mistrust

2. Autonomy vs Shame

3. Initiative vs Guilt

4. Industry vs Inferiority

5. Identity vs Role Confusion

6. Intimacy vs Isolation

7. Generativity vs Stagnation

8. Ego Integrity vs Despair

Trust vs. Mistrust (birth - 12 months)

• Erikson

• baby’s unconscious trust in being provided food, security, and emotional comfort

• formation of social attachment / separation anxiety

Erikson’s Stage from birth to 12 months…

…is the Infancy / Trust vs Mistrust Stage

Autonomy vs Shame (1 - 3 years)

• Erikson

• development of self awareness

• child tests boundaries to exert their independence

• lack of independence creates a defeated self concept and doubt in a child’s abilities

Erikson’s Stage from 1 - 3 years…

…is the Early Childhood / Autonomy vs Shame Stage

Initiative vs Guilt (3 - 6 years)

• Erikson

• children self-direct their own course of activity

• learning of preschool tasks creates pride and confidence

• failure to learn creates guilt, frustration, anger, and embarrassment

Erikson’s Stage from 3 - 6 years…

…is the Play Age / Initiative vs Guilt Stage

Industry vs Inferiority (6 - 12 years)

• Erikson

• critical period for learning / self confidence

• if learning fosters curiosity → motivated student

• if learning fosters inferiority → apathetic student

Erikson’s Stage from 6 - 12 years…

…is the School Age / Industry vs Inferiority Stage

Identity vs Role Confusion (12 - 20 years)

• Erikson

• peer conformity = teen identity crisis

• self reflection of values, principles, future goals

• stress of future occupational identity

• fear of the next chapter of life

Erikson’s Stage from 12 - 20 years…

…is the Adolescence / Identity vs Role Confusion Stage

Intimacy vs Isolation (20 - 30 years)

• Erikson

• emotional readiness to form a long term relationship

• if identity conflicts remain unresolved, people tend to avoid partnered relationships

Erikson’s Stage from 20 - 30 years…

…is the Young Adulthood / Intimacy vs Isolation Stage

Generativity vs Stagnation (30 - 65 years)

• Erikson

• emotional / biological need to have children

• creating a family / future generations

• lack of emotional readiness to have children

Erikson’s Stage from 30 - 65 years…

…is the Adulthood / Generativity vs Stagnation Stage

Ego Integrity vs Despair (65 - death years)

• Erikson

• final reflections on life experiences, decisions, goals achieved, etc.

• satisfied → death with integrity

• unsatisfied → death with despair

Erikson’s Stage from 65 - death years…

…is the Maturity / Ego Integrity vs Despair Stage

Death Anxiety

the psychological response and emotion of anxiety, dread, or distress that individuals experience when confronted with their own mortality

Desensitization via Exposure

desensitization through frequent dealings with death

Desensitization via Behavior

desensitization through tying up loose end and finishing unfinished business; forces us to deal with death in a concrete manner

Desensitization via Cognition

desensitization by spending time picturing one’s “ideal death”

Desensitization via Perception

desensitization by exceeding our own perceived life expectancy; gives us a sense of living on borrowed time; acceptance of the inevitable

Denial

refusing to acknowledge impending death

Anger

resentment and blame towards others

Bargaining

making unrealistic negotiations

Depression

experiencing grief in the mourning process

Acceptance

coming to terms with death

Necrobiosis

cyclical exchange of old cells to be continually replaced by new cells

Necrosis

• organic / cellular death

• accelerated decay of organic tissue cells

• cellular structure deteriorates at a rate that outpaces repair

Infarction

organ failure

Clinical Death

• biomedical definition

• cessation of blood circulation, respiration, and brain activity

• time interval starting form the onset of symptoms until the body is resuscitated

• average of ±4 mins of life support

Somatic Death

• legal definition

• permanent, irreversible death

• result of failure to resuscitate from clinical death

• can be intervened with artificial life support

  1. heart pump

  2. respirator

  3. feeding tube

Brain Death

• organic infarction due to cessation of circulation and respiration or physical trauma

• absolute cortical failure

• infarction due to oxygen deprivation beginning at the cortex level then spreading towards the hind brain

Persistent Vegetative Stage

• brain death characterized by total cortical failure but all structures in hindbrain remain functional

• inability to speak or voluntarily move

• sleep wake remains intact without REM

• eyes open and close but not responsive to stimuli

Catatonic Vegetative Coma

• total cortical failure and failure within structures of hindbrain / midbrain

• physiological deactivation of bodily systems

• no sleep

• lack of gag or corneal reflex

• unrecoverable / irreversible

Passive Euthanasia

removal of artificial life support with the intention of resuming the natural dying process (legal)

Living Will

legal documents that express the patient’s intentions if rendered in a state of physical and mental incapacitation

Active Euthanasia

assisted suicide; widely considered ethical and human but illegal to administer in the US

Bereavement

the emotional behavioral experience of a loss of a loved one due to death

Grief

emotional responses to a loss of life

Mourning

sociocultural behaviors and reactions to a loss of life

Recovery

readjustments to daily life often by assuming new roles and responsibilities

3 Legal US Funeral Options

1. Burial

2. Cremation

3. Donation to scientific research