Nature vs. Nurture
How do genetics and experience influence behavior. Are we who we are because of the way we were born OR the way we were raised.
Continuity
Is development a gradual, continuous process?
Stability
Do our early personality traits persist through life
Stages
Is development a sequence of separate stages?
Change
Do we become a different person as we age?
Conception
When sperm penetrates the ovum
Zygote
A fertilized egg, the first stage of prenatal development. Lasts about 2 weeks and consists of rapid cell division, less than half survive the two weeks.
Embryo
After 2 weeks, zygote becomes embryo. Lasts about 6 weeks, the heart begins to beat and the organs begin to develop.
Fetus
9 weeks after embryo is developed. By the 6th month, the stomach and other organs have formed enough to survive outside the mother. Baby can hear and recognize sounds and respond to light.
Teratogens
Chemicals or viruses that can enter the placenta and harm the developing fetus; Alch, HIV, STDS, Viruses, ect
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant womens heavy drinking
Reflexes
Newborn automatic responses. Rooting, sucking, grasping, moro, babinski, ect.
The Competent Newborn
Offspring cries are necessary for survival. They are important signals for parents to provide nourishment
Visual Acuity
Newborns see most clearly when faces are 4-30 inch away.
20/600 (what a newborn can see at 20ft is what adults can see at 600ft)
Binocular Vision
The ability to use both eyes together to focus on an object. Develops around 14 weeks.
Healthy Newborns
Turns head to voices, sees 8-12 inches from face, gazes longer at human like objects.
Infancy
Newborn to toddler
Childhood
Toddler to teenager
Physical Development
Infants Psychological development depends on their bio development
The Brain and Infancy
Although the brain does not develop many new cells, the existing cells begin to work more efficiently, forming complex neural networks.
Developing Brain
The developing brain overproduces neurons. Peeking around 28 bil at 7 months. The greatest neuronal spurt is in the frontal lobe.
Maturation
The development of the brain unfolds based on genetic instructions, causing various bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence. Sets the basic course of development, while experience adjusts it.
Motor Development
Refers to the acquisition of abilities like grasping, walking, skipping and balancing. Infants begin to roll over; then they sit unsupported, then crawl, then walk.
Developmental Norms
A timetable during infancy that helps doctors and psychologists record development
Infantile Amnesia
This explains why 3-4 year olds can't remember anything of the few months of life. Many neural connections that underlie memories are only beginning to form
Maturation and Infant Memory
The earlier age of conscious memory is around 3.5 years. A 5 year old has a sense of self and an increased long-term memory, thus organization of memory is different from 3-4 years
Jean Piaget
Dominated in the field of cognitive development. Agreed that cognitive processes follow a series of stages in an invariable order
Invariable
Never changing
Piaget and IQ Tests
While developing IQ tests he noticed many children got the same questions wrong. He concluded that the kids are not "stupid" but instead they think differently than adults
Piaget Believed
That the driving force behind intellectual development is our biological development amidst experiences with the environment. Our cognitive development is formed by the errors we make
Schemas
The way we interpret the world around us. What you picture in your head (prototype) when you think of anything. "A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. Mental molds into which we pour our experiences"
Assimilation
\n Interpreting ones NEW experiences in terms of one's existing schemas. Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas
Accommodation
Changing an existing schema to adopt new information
Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget. Age 0-2. We experience the world through our senses. Do NOT have object permanence; AKA objects that are out of sight are out of mind
Criticisms of Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget believed that those in this stage do not have abstract concepts or ideas. Research shows that those in this stage can think and count. Children can understand the basic laws of physics
Preoperational Stage
Piaget. Age 2-7. Have object permanence. Begin to use language to represent object and ideas. Are egocentric and do not understand concepts of conservation
Egocentrism
Cannot look at the world through anyone's eyes but their own. Piaget concluded that preschoolers cannot perceive things from another persons's point of view
Conservation
Children cannot understand that although things look different, they can still be the same
Concrete Operational Stage
Piaget. Age 6-11. Grasp conservation problems. Children are able to transform mathematical functions. Logical reasoning
Logical Reasoning
Only think in black and white
Formal Operational Stage
Piaget. Around age 12. We are able to think abstractly. We can now use symbols and imagined realities to systematically reason. Can manipulate objects in our minds without seeing them. Hypothesis testing. Trial and error. Metacognition
Hypothesis testing
I will get away with it or not thinking
Metacognition
Able to think about things from different perspectives
Critiques of Piaget’s Theory
Today's research believes the following: Development is a continuous process; Children express their mental abilities and operations at an earlier age; Formal logic is a smaller part of cognition. Some say he underestimated children's abilities. Studies show that our attention span grows gradually over time
Information-Processing Model
Children learn and grow gradually and continuously, not in stages
Inner Speech
Lev Vygotsky. By age 7 children become increasingly capable of thinking in words and using words to work out problems. They internalize their culture's language and rely on inner speech. The more time children spend processing, the stronger their cognitive ability is developed
Zone of Proximal Development
When children are developmentally ready to learn a new skill through mentoring/social interaction
Temperament
Emotional reactivity and intensity
Easy Temperament
Adaptable, positive mood, regular habits
Slow to Warm Up Temperament
Low activity, somewhat slow to adapt, generally withdraw from new situations
Difficult Temperament
Intense emotions, irritable, cry frequently
Average Temperament
Unable to classify, 1/3 of all children. A mix of all
Stranger Anxiety
The fear of strangers develops around 8 months. This is the stage at which infants form schemas for familiar faces and cannot assimilate a new face
Separation Anxiety
Peaks around 13 months of age, regardless of whether the children are home or sent to daycare
Body Contact
It was first assumed that infants became attached to those who satisfied their need for nourishment. Studies show that infants are more attached to those who give them physical, comforting contact. Monkey study
Harry Harlow (1971)
Origins of attachment. Showed that infants bond with surrogate mothers because of bodily contact and not because of nourishment
Harlows Surrogate Mother Experiments
Monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing mother. Monkeys raised by artificial mothers were terror-stricken when placed in strange situations
Critical Periods
The optimal period shortly after birth when an organisms exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produce proper development. Those who are deprived of touch have trouble forming attachments when they are older
Harlow's Legacy
Bond of attachment between parent and child. Secure base from which to explore. The need for security remains with us throughout our lives
Mary Ainsworth: Attachment
Am emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress in separation.
Secure Attachment
60% of children. They explore their environment happily in the presence of their mother, but show distress when their mother leave; easily consolable
Insecure Attachment
30% of children. Cling to their mother or caregiver. Anxious and less likely to explore. When their mother leaves they are very distressed and are inconsolable or indifferent. Avoidant or Anxious resistant
Avoidantly Attached
Insecure. A child avoids their mother and acts coldly to her
Anxious Resistant Attachment
Insecure. A child remains close to their mother and remains distressed despite her attempts to comfort
Secure Attachment and Social Competence
Predicts social competence. Function more confidently than other toddlers. Relaxed and attentive caregiving becomes the backbone of secure attachment
Prolonged Deprivation
If parental or caregiving support is deprived for an extended period of time, children are at risk for physical and psychological problems
Daycare and Attachment
Quality daycare that consists of responsive adults interacting with children does not harm the children's thinking and language skills for children over the age of 2. Studies for children below 2 have no clear answer
Authoritarian Parenting
Parents impose rules and expect obedience. Do not give reasons for rules
Permissive Parenting
Parents submit to their children's desires. Make few demands and little punishment
Authoritative Parenting
Parents are both demanding and responsive. Exert control by setting rules, but explain the reasoning behind the rules. Encourage open discussion. Correlates with social competence
Erik Erikson
A Neo-Freudian. Worked with Anna Freud. Though our personality was influenced by our experiences with others. Came up with eight stages of social development, each one centers on social conflict
Erikson Stage 1: Trust vs Mistrust
Age: Birth-18 months. Important Event: Feeding. Infants form a loving, trusting relationship with parents; they also learn to mistrust others.
Erikson Basic Trust
A sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy. Said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
Erikson Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
Age: 18 months-3 years. Important Event: Toilet training. Child's energies are directed towards physical skills; walking, grasping, toilet training. The child learns to control alone with a healthy dose of shame and doubt. Begin to control their bodies. Control temper tantrums. Big word is NO. Will they learn control or will they doubt themselves?
Erikson Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt
Age: 3-6 years. Important Event: Independence. Child becomes more assertive, takes more initiative, and becomes more curious. Words change from "NO" to "WHY?" Want to understand the world and ask questions. Is their curiosity encouraged or scolded?
Erikson Stage 4: Competence vs Inferiority
Age: 6-12 years. Important Event: School. The child must deal with demands to learn new skills while risking a sense of inferiority and failure. We are evaluated by a formal system (school) and our peers for the first time. Do we feel good or bad about our accomplishments? Can lead to us feeling bad about ourselves for the res of our lives; Inferiority Complex
Erikson Stage 5: Identity vs Role Confusion
Age: Adolescence. Important Event: Peers. Teens must self-identify while deciphering their roles in occupation, politics, religion... In our teenage years we try out different roles. Who am I/Where do I fit in? May develop an identity crisis
Erikson Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation
Age: Young adult. Important Event: Relationships. The young adult develops marriage-seeking relationships while combating feelings of isolation. Balancing adult commitments of work and relationships
Erikson Stage 7: Generativity vs Stagnation
Age: Middle adult. Important Event: Parenting. Assuming the roles of being productive to continue future generations while avoiding the inevitable feeling of failure. Is everything going as planned/Am I happy with what I've created? potential mid-life crisis
Erikson Stage 8: Integrity vs Despair
Age: Late adult. Important Event: Life reflection. Acceptance of one's life. A sense of fulfillment or regret. Looking back on life. Was my life meaningful or do I have regrets?
Gender Roles
A set of expected behaviors for males and females. Societal expectations of activities
Social Learning Theory
We learn through reinforcement and punishment. "What is for boys and what is for girls"
Gender Schema Theory
Children develop schemas for gender. You see the world through the "lens" of your schemas
Gender Stereotype
Societal labels of gender
Gender Identity
Your sense of being male or female
Gender Expression
Communication of gender identity through behavior and appearance
Gender/Sexual Orientation
The gender you are attracted to
Adolescence
The transition period from childhood to adulthood. Extends from puberty to independence
Puberty
The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
Physical Development in Adolescence
Begins with puberty. Occurs earlier in females (11) than males (13). Height for females increases before males
Primary Sexual Characteristics of Puberty
The reproductive organs develop rapidly
Brain Development
Until puberty, neurons increase their connections. However, at adolescence, selective pruning of the neurons begins. Unused neuronal connections are lost to make other pathways more efficient
Brain Development: Frontal Cortex
During adolescence, neurons in the frontal cortex grow myelin, which speeds up nerve conduction. Lags behind the limbic system's development. Hormonal surges and the limbic system explain occasional teen impulsiveness
Developing Reasoning Power
Piaget. Children can handle abstract problems and can perform formal operations. Adolescents can judge good from evil, truth and justice, and think in deeper terms
Cognitive Development
Adolescent's ability to reason gives them a new level of social awareness. They think about their own thinking, what others are thinking, what others are thinking about them, ideals that can be reaches; criticize society, parents, and themselves
Spotlight Effect
The belief that others are paying more attention to one's appearance and behavior than they really are
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Assessed moral reasoning by posing hypothetical moral dilemmas. Three levels: preconventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Each level is based on the degree to which a person conforms to conventional standards of society. Each level has two stages that represent different degrees of sophistication
Preconvetional Morality
Typically used by children under the age of 10. Morality based on rewards and punishments. If you are rewarded it is OK. If you are punish is must be WRONG
Conventional Morality
Typical of most adults. Look at morality based on trying to fit in. Follow what your peers of society think. People have a strong desire to follow the rules
Post-Conventional Morality
Most adults do not reach this level. Based on self-defined ethical principles that represent the rights of all people. Often take precedence over laws coming into conflict