AP Psychology - Unit 3: Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology

concerned with chronological order of development and thematic issues in development across the lifespan.concerned with chronological order of development and thematic issues in development across the lifespan.

Teratogens

potentially harmful agents that can produce birth defects or abnormalities. Many teratogens cause damage only if they are present during a critical period in prenatal development. Maternal illness, Genetic mutations, Hormonal factors, Env factors

Fine motor skills

ability to use small muscles in hands, wrists, and fingers to coordinate movements for tasks like eating, writing, and getting dressed

Gross motor skills

ability to use large muscles to crawl, walk, throw, etc.

Infants

from birth to 1 year) possess reflexes, like the rooting reflex, that indicate on-track physical and psychological milestone development.

Reflex

an innate, automatic response by the body that occurs when a stimulus in the environment is detected.

Rooting reflex

when the corner of a baby's mouth is touched or stroked, the infant will turn their head and open their mouth. The rooting reflex helps infants find food and latch onto a bottle or breast to feed.

Visual Cliff Apparatus

developed by Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk to study whether depth perception is innate

Imprinting

Some non-human animals will imprint on the first object they encounter as a means of survival. This attachment is innate and can't be reversed.

this idea occurs during the critical period of development and isn't forgotten.

Growth spurt and puberty

The main physical and psychological milestones that occur in adolescence, in which reproductive ability develops.

Menarche

1st incidence of menstruation in a female, marking the beginning of puberty

Spermarche

a male's first ejaculation of semen

Primary sex characteristics

Sex organs involved in reproduction

Secondary sex characteristics

Sexual characteristics that develop during puberty but aren't directly involved in reproduction

What are some characteristics which decline during adulthood?

Vision: loss of elasticity in the lens, making it harder to focus
Hearing: may become harder to hear higher-frequency sounds
Crystallized intelligence increases, but fluid intelligence decreases.
Reaction time decreases due to decreased muscle mass, slower nervous system and cognitive processing

What are some risk factors for cognitive decline?

Type 2 diabetes
High blood pressure
Midlife obesity
Smoking
Depression
Little or no mental activity
Little or no physical exercise

Jean piaget

An individual who was known for his theory of cognitive development in children, worked with Alfred Binet in Paris on the first standardized intelligence test. Piaget soon found that he was more interested in children's incorrect answers than their correct ones. He first noticed that children of the same age were producing the same kinds of wrong answers. Realized that young children aren't simply less intelligent than older children; their thought processes are completely different

Assimilation

continuous process where children integrate new information into their existing schemas, reinforcing and expanding their understanding of the world without fundamentally altering their schema.

What is an example of assimilation?

a child who knows what a dog is may assimilate new information by identifying different breeds of dogs as still belonging to the category of "dog."

Accommodation

discontinuous process where new experiences challenge existing schemas, requiring children to modify or create new schemas altogether. Through these processes, schemas become more sophisticated, enabling children to think in increasingly complex ways.

What is an example of accommodation?

if the child encounters a cat and initially calls it a "dog," they must adjust their schema for animals to distinguish between dogs and cats, thereby refining their understanding and adapting to new information.

sensorimotor stage

Age: Infancy through toddlerhood
(Birth to 2)
Description: Experiencing the world through senses and actions
Phenomenon: Object permanence

preoperational stage

Age: Toddlerhood through early childhood
(2-7)
Description: Representing things with words and images; using intuitive rather than logical thought
Phenomenon:
Mental symbols, Pretend play, Egocentrism, Irreversibility, Animism, Begin to develop a theory of mind

concrete operational stage

Age: Early through late childhood
(7 to 11 or 12)
Description: Understand the world in logical, realistic, and straightforward ways, but struggle to think systematically
Phenomenon: Develop conservation, Reversibility obtained

formal operational stage

Age: Late childhood through adulthood
(11-12 & beyond)
Description: Piaget proposed that not all people achieve formal operational thinking
Phenomenon: Gain the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically

Object permanence (sensorimotor stage)

Knowledge of the continued existence of objects even when they are not directly perceived. Infants typically develop this cognitive skill around 8 months. Ex: Peekaboo

Mental symbols (preoperational stage)

children start to use mental symbols, like words and images, to represent objects, people, and experiences. This symbolic thinking allows them to communicate ideas, recall past events, and imagine future possibilities, although their understanding is still very concrete.

Pretend play (preoperational)

imaginative play becomes a big part of the child's life. Through activities like pretending to be a superhero or acting as a parent to a doll, children use their developing symbolic thinking to create scenarios that help them practice social roles and explore different aspects of reality.

Irreversibility (preoperational)

Preoperational children have difficulty understanding that some actions can be undone. They struggle with the concept of reversing processes, so if they see a toy taken apart, they may not understand that it can be put back together in the same way.

Animism (preoperational)

tendency of young children to attribute human qualities or intentions to inanimate objects. For example, a child may think a stuffed animal is "sad" if left alone or think that the moon "follows" them.

Egocentrism (preoperational)

difficulty of children to see perspectives other than their own. This egocentrism means that they may assume everyone else shares their viewpoint, beliefs, and experiences. Reminder: doesn't mean selfish!

Developing theory of mind (preoperational)

near the end of the preoperational stage, children start to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that may differ from their own. This development of a "theory of mind" allows them to grasp that others may have different intentions or viewpoints, though they're still learning to fully appreciate those perspectives.

Conservation (Concrete operational stage)

the logical thinking ability that allows a person to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size

Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory

argued that people can attain higher levels of cognitive development through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society such as adults and more expert peers. Stated that cognitive development is a socially mediated process.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher- range between what is known and what is not known. In between, skills too difficult for a child to master on their own, but can be done with guidance/encouragement from a knowledgeable person.

Scaffolding

offers support so students can tackle challenging tasks just beyond their independent abilities. Eventually the scaffolding is removed as the student becomes more competent.

Cochlea

A message travels through the inner ear, where the cochlea transduces sound vibrations into nerve impulses.

Auditory cortex

Nerve impulses then travel to the auditory cortex, which is part of the cortex related to hearing language

Wernicke's area

this area is responsible for comprehending spoken language in the temporal lobe.

Broca's area

Information then moves to broca's area, the area in the frontal lobe responsible for language production. These areas are in the brain's left hemisphere.

Motor cortex

The message then travels to the motor cortex located in the back of the frontal lobe, that signals your larynx and mouth to move and vocalize your response.

Language

shared (mutually agreed upon) system of arbitrary symbols (often expressed as and combined into phonemes, morphemes, and semantics) that are rule-governed (via grammar and syntax) and generative to produce an infinity of ideas.

Phonemes

the smallest units of sound in a language

What is an example of Phonems?

Ex: the word "cat" comprises 3 phonemes: the sounds kuh, ah, and tuh

Morphemes

the smallest unit of meaning in a language

What is an example of morphems?

Ex: the word "cooked" consists of two morphemes: "cook" and "ed," with the suffix "ed" indicating that the cooking took place in the past

Ex: the word "playing" consists of two morphemes: "play" and "ing"

Semantics

the study of meaning - how words, phrases, and sentences are interpreted

What is an example of semantics?

Ex: bank can mean a financial institution, the side of a river, or to rely or count of something

Ex: connotations like youthful v. childish

Syntax

Set of rules for ordering words and phrases into sentences

what is an example of a syntax?

Ex: nouns before verbs when making statements

Cooing

(birth to 2 mo) (Prelinguistic)

Babbling

(2-12 mo) meaningless speechlike sounds (prelinguistic)

Holophrastic stage

(12 mo) expressing a complete thought with 1 word like "up" for "pick me up" or "hungry" for "I'm hungry" (linguistic)

telegraphic speech

(16 mo) 2-3 word utterances like "me walk"(linguistic)

Over extension

(2-6 yrs) using a word too broadly like calling all four-legged animals a "doggie" -ONLY APPLIES TO NOUNS (linguistic)

over regularization

(2-6 yrs) regular grammatical patterns are applied to irregular verbs like "goed" instead of "went" or "breaked" instead of "broken"(linguistic)

Language acquisition device

innate ability of the human brain to acquire language in childhood's critical period

Ecological systems theory

explores how the social environment influences development; contains the 5 systems micro, meo, exo, macro, chrono

Microsystem

The immediate environment where a person has direct interactions, such as with family, friends, and work

Mesosystem

The interactions between different microsystems

Exosystem

The larger social system that doesn't directly involve the person but still affects them indirectly like a parent's workplace

Macrosystem

Broader cultural and societal factors, such as economic conditions, cultural beliefs, and political systems

Chronosystem

Incorporates the dimension of time, highlighting how changes over time, like life transitions (e.g., starting school), historical events, or shifts in societal values, affect development.

Authoritative parents

High control, High warmth parents; only "good" parenting style

Authoritarian parents

High control, Low warmth

Permissive parents

Low control, High warmth

Uninvolved parents

Low control, low warmth

What are some characteristics of authoritative parents?

Friendly
Cooperative
Self-reliant
Socially-
responsible
Do better in school & are more popular

what are some characteristics of Authoritarian parents?

Moody
Unhappy
Fearful
Withdrawn
Not spontaneous
Irritable
More likely to cheat and deny responsibility & assign blame

What are some characteristics of permissive parents?

Relatively immature
Dependent
Often have tantrums
Tend to ask for help even when encountered with slight difficulties

What are some characteristics of uninvolved parents?

Immature
Impulsive
Aggressive
Less likely than any other children to form secure attachments

Attachment

The emotional bond between an infant or child and its caregiver. The type of attachment has far-reaching consequences for later development.

Temperament

the basic foundation of personality, usually assumed to be biologically determined and present early in life, including such characteristics as energy level, emotional responsiveness, demeanor, mood, and willingness to explore; is related to how children attach to caregivers.

secure attachment style

Children with this attachment style feel safe and confident that their caregivers will meet their needs. This results from caregivers who are consistently responsive, emotionally available, and supportive. Children with this attachment style tend to explore their environment, knowing they can return to their caregiver for comfort if needed. As these children grow, they generally develop positive self-esteem, strong social skills, and healthy relationships, as they have learned that others are trustworthy and reliable.

Avoidant attachment style

In this attachment style, children tend to avoid seeking comfort from their caregiver and may appear independent, even under stress. This usually happens when caregivers are emotionally unavailable, distant, or unresponsive to the child's needs. Children with this attachment style may suppress their emotions and avoid dependency on others, as they've learned that their needs for comfort may not be consistently met. Later in life, they may have difficulties trusting others, expressing emotions, and forming close relationships.

Anxious attachment style

Children with this attachment style exhibit a strong need for closeness and may become overly clingy or dependent on their caregivers. This attachment style often develops when caregivers are inconsistently responsive - sometimes available and attentive, other times neglectful or unavailable. These children may be uncertain about if their needs will be met, leading to heightened anxiety and difficulty with independence. As they grow, they may struggle with confidence, feel insecure in relationships, and worry about abandonment or rejection.

Disorganized attachment style

Children with this attachment style display contradictory behaviors towards their caregiver, often showing fear and affection. This attachment style typically occurs in situations where the caregiver is a source of fear or unpredictability, like in cases of abuse, neglect, or trauma. As these children grow, they may experience challenges with emotional regulation, trust, and relationships, often struggling with mental health issues or behavioral difficulties.

Separation anxiety

a normal stage of development where children experience intense distress or fear when separated from their primary caregiver or when confronted with unfamiliar people or environments. This reaction is especially common in infants and toddlers, typically peaking between 8 to 18 months, although it can vary depending on the child's temperament and attachment to their caregiver. Most children outgrow separation anxiety by age 3.

Three types of ACEs (adverse childhood experiences)

Abuse, neglect, household dysfunction

Abuse

Physical, emotional, sexual

Neglect

Physical, emotional

Household dysfunction

Mental illness, mother treated violently, divorce, incarcerated relative, substance abuse

Parallel play

children play alongside one another without direct interaction. Parallel play often leads to imitation, where a child adopts ideas from another, which serves as a precursor to cooperative play.

Pretend play

imaginative scenarios where children role-play or assign symbolic meaning to objects, such as pretending a stick is a magic wand. Often requires collaboration, turn-taking, and negotiation, which enhance social interactions and friendships.

Children might start in parallel play by pretending to cook in their individual "kitchens" but eventually transition into collaborative pretend play, such as running a "restaurant" together.

Imaginary audience

teens believe they're the center of attention and others are constantly observing and judging them. Reflects teens' heightened awareness of social norms and desire for peer approval.

What is an example of imaginary audience?

Ex: feeling self-conscious about appearance

Personal fable

teens believe their experiences and feelings are special, unique and unlike anyone else's. The personal fable contributes to identity exploration by encouraging introspection and individualism.

what is an example of personal fable?

Ex: belief that "no one understands me" or risk-taking behaviors based on a sense of invincibility (e.g., "That won't happen to me").

Identity diffusion

this status occurs when adolescents have neither explored options nor made any

commitments to their identity. Low commitment, Low exploration- bad

commitments to their identity. Low commitment, Low exploration- bad

Identity foreclosure

this status occurs when adolescents have committed to an identity without exploring alternatives. Their commitments are often based on external expectations (e.g., parents, cultural norms) rather
than personal exploration; High commitment, Low exploration-bad

Identity moratorium

this status occurs when adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made commitments. This is often a period of questioning, experimentation, and self-discovery; Low commitment, High exploration-good

Identity achievement

this status occurs when adolescents have explored various options and made deliberate choices about their identity. This involves a strong commitment to personal values, beliefs, and goals; High commitment, High exploration-good

Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erikson's theory of psychosocial development outlines 8 stages of human growth, each characterized by a specific conflict that individuals must resolve to develop a healthy sense of self. Success at each stage builds a foundation for the next, while unresolved conflicts can lead to challenges later in life.

Basic Trust vs Mistrust (birth-1yr)

Infants must learn to trust others to care for their basic needs, If caregivers reject/are inconsistent with care, infant may see world as dangerous and see everyone as untrustworthy/unreliable-Mother/primary caregiver is key agent.

Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3 yrs)

Children must learn to feed, dress, follow hygiene, etc themselves; failure to achieve this independence may force the child to doubt their abilities and feel shameful. Parents are key agents.

initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs)

Children attempt to act grown and will try to accept responsibilities beyond their capacity to handle, sometimes undertake goals/activities that conflict with parents/other family members, the conflicts may make them feel guilty. Proper resolution requires balance: child must retain a sense of initiative and yet learn not to impinge on the rights, privileges, and goals of others. The family is key social agent.

Industry vs inferiority (6-12 yrs)

Children must master important social/academic skills. Period when child compares themselves w/ peers; if sufficiently industrious, they will acquire social/academic skills to feel self assured. Failure to acquire these important attributes lead to feelings of inferiority. Key social agents are teachers and peers.

Identity vs role confusion (12-20 yrs)

Crossroad between childhood and maturity, grappling with "who am I?" adolescents must establish basic social/occupational identities or will remain confused about what roles to play as adults. Key agent is society of peers.