Midterm Exam Review - Criminal Psychology

What is the conformity perspective in criminology?

The theoretical position that humans are born basically good and generally try to do the right and just thing.

What causes crime according to the conformity perspective?

Crime happens when society puts too much pressure on people to conform.

What is the nonconformist perspective in criminology?

The theoretical position that humans are naturally self-serving or aggressive.

According to the nonconformist perspective, when does crime occur?

When social controls (like laws or conscience) are weak.

What is the learning perspective in psychology?

The theoretical position that humans are born basically neutral and behaviorally a blank slate.

How is criminal behavior learned according to the learning perspective?

Criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others who reinforce or model it.

Uniform Crime Report (UCR)

FBI-run system that collects summary data from police; records only the most serious offense per incident

Part I Crimes

The eight most serious offenses included in the UCR: murder, rape, assault, robbery, burglary, arson, larceny, and motor vehicle theft

Part II Crimes

All other crimes, aside from the eight Part I crimes, included in the UCR arrest data (e.g., drug offenses, fraud, vandalism)

Hierarchy rule

In the UCR, if multiple crimes happen in one event, only the most serious one is recorded—causing undercounting of lesser crimes in incidents

National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)

A more detailed FBI crime data system that records all crimes in a single incident and includes info like victim-offender relationship, weapons used, and time of day

Primary Official Source of Crime Data

NIBRS is replacing the UCR as the main national crime database; it collects more detailed data but not all agencies have switched yet

National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

A household survey run by the Bureau of Justice Statistics that asks people about crimes they experienced, whether or not they reported them to police; covers assault, theft, rape, etc.

UCR/NIBRS Limitations

Only include crimes known to police; may reflect reporting bias, inconsistent law enforcement practices, and undercount due to the Hierarchy Rule (UCR)

NCVS Limitations

Based on self-reports, which can be affected by memory issues, misunderstanding, or lying; doesn't cover homicide or crimes against businesses

Self-Report Study Limitations

Relies on people admitting to illegal behavior—may underreport or exaggerate; usually conducted on specific groups like teens or students, limiting generalizability

Risk factors

Conditions that increase the likelihood of antisocial behavior or criminal development (e.g., abuse, poverty, poor parenting, peer rejection)

Protective factors

Conditions that reduce the impact of risk or promote healthy development (e.g., supportive relationships, academic success, empathy)

What is the Cumulative Risk Model?

A model suggesting that risk factors add up.

What does the Cumulative Risk Model imply about the number of risk factors?

The more risk factors a person has, the greater the chance of poor outcomes.

What is an example of a poor outcome associated with the Cumulative Risk Model?

Criminality, antisocial behavior

What is the Developmental Cascade Model?

A model suggesting that one risk factor can trigger a chain reaction across areas of development.

What areas of development can be affected by the Developmental Cascade Model?

Social, emotional, and academic areas.

Resilience

The ability to adapt positively despite adversity or risk; resilient individuals may have protective traits (e.g., high IQ, strong support systems) that help them resist negative outcomes despite high risk exposure

What happens when a risk factor is present in the Developmental Cascade Model?

It can cause effects to spread across different areas of development.

Poverty & Antisocial Behavior

Poverty is a strong risk factor linked to violence, poor education, limited resources, and inconsistent parenting—all of which increase antisocial behavior

What characterizes Authoritarian Parenting?

Strict rules, low warmth; may cause aggression or fear in children

What are the characteristics of Permissive Parenting?

High warmth, low control; often leads to impulsivity and poor self-discipline

What defines Neglectful Parenting?

Low warmth and control; strongest risk factor for antisocial behavior

What is the main feature of Authoritative Parenting?

High warmth and control; strongest protective factor against antisocial behavior

What is Secure Attachment?

Child feels safe and supported; leads to healthy emotional development

What is Insecure-Avoidant Attachment?

Child avoids closeness; often emotionally distant or unexpressive

What is Insecure-Ambivalent Attachment?

Child is clingy and uncertain; often anxious or emotionally unstable

What is Disorganized Attachment?

Fearful, inconsistent bond—common in abused children; most linked to antisocial behavior

What is the effect of peer rejection on behavior?

Being rejected by peers increases the risk of associating with delinquent groups and showing antisocial behavior

How does academic failure relate to delinquency?

Academic failure is linked to low self-esteem and increased risk for delinquency, especially when paired with peer rejection

What is the relationship between lack of empathy and aggression?

A lack of empathy, particularly low emotional sensitivity to others' feelings, is linked to aggression and conduct problems

What may untreated ADHD lead to?

Rule-breaking behavior

What is Conduct Disorder (CD)?

A pattern of violating rules and others' rights

What are some behaviors associated with Conduct Disorder?

Aggression, theft, lying

What is a strong predictor of adult criminal behavior?

Conduct Disorder (CD)

Executive function

the cognitive ability to organize and prioritize the many thoughts that arise from the various parts of the brain, allowing the person to anticipate, strategize, and plan behavior

Poor executive functioning

Children that are more impulsive, and have difficulty shifting and updating behaviors and thoughts have a greater risk for antisocial behavior

What is temperament in children?

Temperament is a child's natural disposition or emotional reactivity.

What are key traits of temperament?

Key traits include irritability, low self-regulation, high activity level, and low fearfulness.

What can certain temperaments predict?

Certain temperaments can be early predictors of conduct problems.

What factors can exacerbate conduct problems related to temperament?

Harsh parenting or chaotic environments can exacerbate conduct problems.

What does behavioral genetics explore?

How genes and environment interact to shape behavior

What do researchers study regarding aggression in behavioral genetics?

Researchers study the heritability of aggression or antisocial traits

What is the difference between shared and non-shared environments?

Shared environments are those that individuals have in common, while non-shared environments are unique to individuals

Identical twins - Crime link

Identical twins show higher similarity in antisocial behavior, suggesting a genetic component in criminal tendencies

Fraternal twins - Crime link

Lower similarity than identical twins; supports idea that antisocial behavior is partly inherited

Twin Study Findings - Crime

Show moderate heritability for antisocial behavior; genes play a role, especially in persistent or violent crime

Adoption Studies - Crime Findings

Kids with antisocial biological parents are more likely to commit crimes, especially when placed in dysfunctional adoptive homes

Lead exposure

Linked to lower IQ, poor impulse control, and higher rates of aggression and violent crime

Sources of lead

Common in old paint, water, soil, and industrial areas—often impacts low-income communities

Cadmium exposure

Impairs attention and cognition; exposure comes from cigarette smoke, batteries, and some foods

Cause of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

Prenatal alcohol exposure that affects brain and behavioral development

Cognitive effects of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

Low IQ, memory problems, and learning difficulties

Behavioral effects of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

Impulsivity, aggression, and poor social judgment—linked to juvenile delinquency

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder - Crime link

Strong predictor of conduct problems and antisocial behavior later in life

Traumatic brain injury

Brain damage from injury or abuse, often affecting the frontal lobes

Cognitive effects of traumatic brain injuries (TBI)

Poor attention, decision-making, and emotional regulation

Behavioral effects of traumatic brain injuries

Aggression, impulsivity, and personality changes—linked to higher risk of criminal behavior

How traumatic brain injuries are linked to crime

Youth with early TBI show higher rates of arrest, violence, and repeat offending

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that naturally produces a response (e.g. food causing salivation)

Unconditioned response

The natural, automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. salivating to food)

Conditioned stimulus

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with a US, triggers a learned response (e.g., bell)

Conditioned response

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivating to the sound of the bell)

Operant conditioning

Learning based on consequences; behaviors are shaped by rewards and punishments

Positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food; a positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

Negative reinforcement

the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus

Positive punishment

Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior (e.g., giving detention for misbehavior)

Negative punishment

Taking away something desirable to decrease a behavior (e.g., taking phone away for rule-breaking)

Reinforcement

Increases the likelihood of a behavior continuing

Punishment

Decreases the likelihood of a behavior continuing

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness in group settings; increases impulsive or antisocial behavior

Obedience

Following orders from authority—even when it conflicts with personal morals

Stanford Prison Experiment

Philip Zimbardo's study of the effect of roles on behavior; college students were randomly assigned to be guards or prisoners; showed how roles and authority can lead to abusive behavior

Key finding of Stanford Prison Experiment

Normal people can commit harmful acts when placed in positions of power and stripped of personal identity

Moral disengagement

rationalizing immoral behavior as legitimate, as a way of justifying one's own bad acts

Moral justification

Framing harmful actions as serving a moral purpose (e.g., "I did it for the greater good")

Euphemistic language

Using mild or vague words to downplay harmful behavior (e.g., "collateral damage" instead of civilian deaths)

Advantageous comparison

Justifying behavior by comparing it to something worse (e.g., "At least I didn't kill anyone")

Displacement of responsibiity

Blaming authority for one's actions (e.g., "I was just following orders")

What is instrumental aggression?

Goal-oriented and planned; used as a means to an end.

What is an example of instrumental aggression?

Robbing someone to get money.

Does instrumental aggression often involve strong emotional arousal?

No, it often lacks strong emotional arousal.

In what context is instrumental aggression commonly seen?

Common in criminal behavior.

What is expressive (or reactive) aggression?

Impulsive and emotionally driven.

What triggers expressive aggression?

Anger, fear, or frustration.

What is the goal of expressive aggression?

To hurt someone, not to gain a reward.

In what situations is expressive aggression often seen?

Often seen in violent outbursts

What is displaced aggression?

Displaced aggression occurs when someone cannot retaliate against the original source of frustration, so they direct their aggression toward a safer or unrelated target

Give an example of displaced aggression.

Getting yelled at by your boss, then coming home and yelling at your sibling

What environments are often linked to displaced aggression?

Environments with power imbalances or chronic stress

How is aggression learned according to social learning theory?

By observing and imitating others, especially if the behavior is rewarded or goes unpunished

What is direct reinforcement in the context of aggression?

When a bully gets what they want

What is vicarious reinforcement in the context of aggression?

Watching others succeed using aggression

What is cognitive modeling in relation to aggression?

Internalizing aggressive ways of thinking