Demographic Trends in the UK Since 1900

birth rate

the number of live births per 1000 of the population per year

total fertility rate

the average number of children one woman will have between the ages of 15-44

death rate

the number of deaths per 1000 of the population per year

infant mortality rate

the number of children dying before their first birthday per 1000 live births per year

dependency ratio

the % of dependent people (not of working age) divided by the number of people of working age (economically active); the proportion of dependents per 100 working age population

life expectancy

the average number of years that a person can expect to live

migration

moving to another country for at least a year

internal migration

moving within your country of residence

immigration

entering another country for a period of at least a year, so that it becomes your usual place of residence

emigration

leaving your usual country of residence for at least a year, to live in another country

net migration

the difference between the number of immigrants coming to a country and the number of emigrants leaving a country in a year

natural change

changes to the size of the population due to changes in the numbers of births and deaths, excluding migration

globalisation

the way in which the world is becoming increasingly interconnected, causing time and space to seem compressed

what was the birth rate in 1901

29 per 1000

what was the birth rate in 2020

11\.1 per 1000

what was the total fertility rate in 1901

3\.5

what was the total fertility rate in 2020

1\.7

what was the death rate in 1901

18\.4 per 1000

what was the death rate in 2020

9\.3

what was the infant mortality rate in 1901

142 per 1000

what was the infant mortality rate in 2020

4\.4

what was the life expectancy in 1901

45 years on average

what was the life expectancy in 2020

81 years on average

what was the dependency ratio in 1901

34 per 100

what was the dependency ratio in 2020

55\.5 per 100

summarise the trend of the birth rate

* the birth rate has decreased
* women are having children at a later age
* women are having fewer children
* more women are remaining childless

what are the four causes of the decreasing birth rate

* change in women’s position in society
* falling infant mortality rate
* increased cost of child-rearing
* changing attitudes

what has caused women’s position in society to improve (subsequently causing more women to choose not to have children)

* more women are entering the workplace, due to the introduction of anti-discrimination laws
* women are having an increased educational performance
* there is increasingly effective contraceptive available and most women have access to abortions
* women are less likely to get married

what is an example of an anti-discrimination law that has led more women to enter the workplace

the Equal Pay Act

how can the Equal Pay Act be contested

it has actually created false class consciousness, and women are still exploited economically in the workplace, through the use of things like zero hours contracts, or through employers refusing to offer them promotions

why might increased presence of women in the workplace not decrease the birth rate

maternity and paternity leave exists

how can the idea that most women have access to abortions be contested

Roe v Wade

what are reasons for the falling infant mortality rate

* rising living standards
* improved hygiene and sanitation
* the welfare state
* increased monitoring of child welfare

what are examples that can be used to contest the idea that living standards for children have not improved

* the insufficient food received as a substitute for free school meals during the pandemic
* the cost of living crisis

which sociologist argued that falling infant mortality rates had led to the emergence of childhood as a distinct life stage

Shorter

what are reasons that the cost of child-rearing has increased

* the length of schooling has increased and so children are dependents for longer
* we are more materialistic and childcentric
* people want higher living standards so have fewer children

when did the length of schooling increase to 18

2007

what institution has made the family more materialistic and childcentric

the media, which has increased ‘pester power’ in children

Beck and Gernsheim on changing attitudes (that have led to a decrease in the birth rate)

they call this process individualisation, which is when people become more concerned with the own needs

what does the process of individualisation entail (Beck and Gernsheim)

* people no longer have to follow traditional norms and values
* alternatives to the nuclear family are now socially acceptable

why might the birth rate have risen recently

* there is improved reproductive technology, such as IVF
* older women are increasingly having children (though this may contribute to the lower birth rate, because this generally lowers the fertility rate)
* increased immigration - migrants are typically of child-bearing age and, on average, migrant families tend to be slightly larger than non-migrants

what are the three consequences of the falling birth rate

* increased dependency ratio
* strain on public services
* further changes in gender roles

how does the falling birth rate cause an increased dependency ratio

this is created when the falling birth rate is coupled with the UK’s ageing population - there are less people in the new generation to care for the older ones, and if less people are being born, less people will enter the workplace, and so there won’t be the tax to pay for public services for dependents

how does the falling birth rate cause further changes to gender roles

women have more time for their careers and so relationships between men and women in the private and public spheres may become more egalitarian

how does the falling birth rate affect the experience of childhood

people are likely to have fewer siblings

how does the falling birth rate affect relationships within the family and with the extended family

this creates beanpole families, leading to greater family diversity

what type of roles in the family does the falling birth ratee arguably create

joint conjugal roles (the family becoming more symmetrical)

which sociologists were associated with the idea that the family is becoming more symmetrical

Wilmott and Young

what family types become more popular with the falling birth rate

dual worker and beanpole

what factors can influence the death rate

class, age, gender, ethnicity, and sexuality

what is an example of when the death rate has been affected by sexuality

the AIDs epidemic

summarise the nature of the life expectancy trend

it has been growing steadily for over half a century

does the UK have more children or more people on state pension

more people on state pension

Hirsch on life expectancy

* Hirsch predicts that by the middle of this century, each age group will amount to roughly the same amount of people, as the traditional age ‘pyramid’ is disappearing
* social policy will have to be used to adapt to an ageing population

by what year will it no longer be true that there are fewer 60-80 year olds than people in younger age groups (Hirsch)

2041

according to BBC News in 2018, what is revealed by the early death rate

a ‘postcode lottery’

what does it mean that the early death rate in some parts of the UK shows a ‘postcode lottery’

people living in the poorest parts of the UK are more likely to die prematurely

what is an example of a place with one of the highest death rates in the country

Manchester

what was the death rate for Manchester in 2018

388 per 100,000

what are the four causes of the decreasing death rate

* the Beveridge Report
* medical advances
* improved hygiene and nutrition
* improved maternity care

what did the Beveridge report outline

the five giants - idleness, want, disease, ignorance, squalor

how can each of the five giants be addressed

* idleness - more employment opportunities
* want - social services/ benefits
* disease - universal healthcare
* ignorance - the education system
* squalor - town planning

who carried out the Beveridge report

William Beveridge

what did the Beveridge report lead to

the establishment of the National Health Service in 1948 and a national system of benefits

how does the NHS function economically

medical care is free at the point of delivery

what did medical advances include in the past

* antibiotics led to a decrease in preventable deaths
* the establishment of the NHS in 1948
* vaccination programmes led to a decrease in infectious diseases such as TB and whooping cough

what have recent medical advancements addressed

diseases of affluence are being treated more effectively

what are some examples of diseases of affluence

* cancers linked to smoking/ drinking
* heart attacks
* type 2 diabetes

McKeown on the death rate

improved nutrition and living standards are the main causes in the decrease in death rates (partly because improved nutrition improves resistance to infectious diseases)

evaluation of McKeown

fails to explain why women have a longer life expectancy than men, despite receiving a smaller share of food

how has improved maternity care helped to decrease the death rate

home births are linked with a higher risk of fatality, but since 1975, only 5% of births have been home births

how would a Marxist view the Beveridge Report

Marxism would argue that the five giants disproportionately affect the working class

who is most likely to be affected by diseases of affluence

the working class, because they can only afford the lifestyle that leads to developing them

what are some examples of new policies that are the result of the ageing population

* increasing the pension age
* the bedroom tax
* care in the community

what has the pension age been increased to

67 for both men and women by 2028

what is the bedroom tax

a reduction in housing benefit if you have a spare room

when was the bedroom tax introduced

2012

what is care in the community

the promotion of family support for the elderly, rather than state support

when was care in the community introduced

1990

what was care in the community introduced in response to

the strain on health and social services due to the ageing population

what theory’s ideology does care in the community promote

the new right (welfare should be privatised and within the family; anti state intervention)

what are the 5 consequences of the ageing population

* increased dependency ratio
* increased family diversity
* increased strain on families and communities to care for the elderly
* increasing role of grandparents
* increased opportunities for older people

how much of the welfare budget is spent on pensions

around half

what are some sociologists worries about with regards to pensions

the ‘pension time bomb’ - the fact there is a shortfall between current retirement pots and the amount of money required

what is the effect of the ageing population on the NHS

a strain is put on the NHS because the elderly are more likely to use NHS services than younger generations; more than 2/5 of NHS spending is spent on people over 65

what are policy implications of the increased dependency ratio

* the government has increased the pension age to 67
* NHS trusts have the power to decide which drugs and services to offer so may withdraw some

how does the increased life expectancy affect family diversity

* increased numbers of widowed people means more lone person households
* elderly people moving in with their children creates more classic extended families
* coupled with the low birth rate this creates more beanpole families

what action needs to be taken due to the increase number of lone person households (as a result of the ageing population)

more small houses need to be built

what did the Griffiths Report conclude (1983)

the government should increase the efficiency and amount of care in the community because of the strain on social services; this included privatising some areas of care in the community

what Act lead to greater care in the community

the Social Care Act (1990)

how might Feminism have responded to the proposals of the Griffiths Report

negatively - seeing it as trying to resurrect the housewife/ expressive role

why did the ageing population cause an increase in council tax

to cover deficit for social care funding, such as care for the elderly

Blaikie on the ageing population

* grandparents are now more involved in caring for their grandchildren
* the ageing generation leads to a longer and more fulfilling retirement (positive ageing)

Charles on the ageing population

the increasing role of grandparents means that both parents can return to work, creating dual-earning, ‘neo-conventional’ families

what policy implications does the increasing role of grandparents have

there is less need for state provided childcare

what type of consumerism have things like the media and leisure facilities adapted to with the ageing population

‘grey’ consumerism

what is the ‘grey’ pound

the economic powers of elderly people

how do increased opportunities for older people lead to greater family diversity

this leads to an increase in things like divorce and the reconstituted family among the older generation

which sociologist argues that old age is socially constructed and we need to change our cultural views towards the idea that people have to retire at 60-65

Hirsch

what does Peter Townsend recognise as a reason for negativity towards old people

old age has been socially constructed as a period of dependency by the creation of a statutory retirement period