PsyEl mod 3

Behaviorism

Focuses on the relation between observable behavior and environmental events; concentrates on measurable behaviors, not mental processes.

Principles of learning

identify certain factors that influence learning and describe the specific effects these factors have

Equipotentiality

Human beings and other animals learn in similar ways.

Stimuli and responses

Learning processes are studied objectively through them.

Internal processes

Excluded or minimized in theoretical explanations.

Black box metaphor

Organism viewed as a black box; stimuli go in and responses come out.

Learning involves behavior change

Emphasis on observable changes.

Tabula rasa

Organisms are born as blank slates.

Environmental events

Primary drivers of learning.

Parsimony

Theories should be as simple as possible.

Classical conditioning

Learning occurs when two stimuli are presented simultaneously.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Automatically leads to a response.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

The natural response to UCS.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response.

Conditioned response (CR)

Learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Associative bias

Certain associations are more likely than others.

Contingency

CS must occur close in time to UCS.

Extinction (Classical)

CS without UCS weakens CR over time.

Spontaneous recovery

Reappearance of CR after rest period following extinction.

Generalization (Classical)

Responding to stimuli similar to the CS.

Stimulus discrimination (Classical)

Differentiating between stimuli based on UCS pairing.

Higher-order conditioning

NS1 becomes CS1; NS2 paired with CS1 becomes CS2.

Counterconditioning

Stronger new CS-CR association replaces old one.

Systematic desensitization

Gradual exposure to anxiety-inducing stimuli while relaxed.

Operant conditioning

Behavior followed by reinforcement is more likely to recur.

Puzzle box

Thorndike’s device showing learning by trial and error.

Law of effect

Behaviors followed by satisfaction are strengthened; discomfort weakens them.

Revised law of effect

Rewards strengthen behavior; punishment has indirect effects.

Primary reinforcer

Naturally satisfying (e.g., food, water).

Secondary reinforcer

Gains reinforcing power through association (e.g., money).

Positive reinforcement

Adding a stimulus to increase behavior.

Social reinforcers

Gestures like praise or attention.

Material reinforcers

Tangible items like toys or food.

Active reinforcers

Opportunity to engage in preferred activity.

Premack principle

A preferred activity can reinforce a less preferred one.

Token reinforcers

Items that can be exchanged for desired rewards.

Positive feedback

Reinforcement that includes affirming messages.

Intrinsic reinforcers

Internal good feelings, such as feeling successful, proud, or a sense of relief after performing a difficult task.

Negative reinforcement

Removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

Superstitious behavior

Randomly administered reinforcement tends to reinforce whatever response has occurred immediately, and the person will increase that response.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of desired behavior.

Chaining

Reinforcing sequences of behaviors.

Extinction (Operant)

Behavior decreases when no longer reinforced.

Extinction burst

a brief increase in the behavior being extinguished or an increase in variability

Continuous reinforcement

Every correct response is reinforced.

Intermittent reinforcement

Some responses are reinforced, some are not.

Ratio schedule

Reinforcement after a number of responses.

Fixed ratio schedule

Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses.

Variable ratio schedule

a reinforcer is presented after a particular continuously changing number of responses have been made

Interval schedule

Reinforcement after a time interval.

Fixed interval schedule

Constant time interval between reinforcement.

Variable interval schedule

Changing time intervals between reinforcement.

Differential schedule

Reinforcement based on rate of responding.

DRH schedule

Reinforcement for high response rate.

DRL schedule

Reinforcement for low response rate.

Cueing (Prompting)

a strategy wherein additional stimuli are given to let the person/people know how to behave, and is also known as prompting

Discriminative stimuli

it increases the likelihood that the response will be followed by reinforcement

Setting events

Complex environmental conditions in which certain behaviors are most likely to occur

Generalization (Operant)

Applying learned behavior to similar situations.

Stimulus discrimination (Operant)

Learning which stimuli lead to reinforcement.

Behavioral momentum

Continuing a behavior pattern once started.

Avoidance learning

Learning to avoid an unpleasant stimulus.

Stimulus (avoidance)

Signal for onset of an aversive event.

Active avoidance learning

the person deliberately makes a response to avoid an aversive stimulus

Passive avoidance learning

Avoidance by not behaving in a specific way.

Punishment I (Presentation punishment)

Introducing an aversive stimulus.

Punishment II (Removal punishment)

Taking away a pleasant stimulus.

Verbal reprimands

Brief, unemotional scolding.

Restitution

a misbehaving individual must return the environment to the same state of affairs that it was in before the misbehavior.

Restitutional overcorrection

Improving the situation beyond the original state.

Positive-practice overcorrection

Repeating correct behavior.

Time-out

Temporary removal from reinforcement.

In-house suspension

Removal from class but kept in school.

Response cost

Involves the withdrawal of a previously earned reinforcer.

Physical punishment

Use of mild physical force.

Psychological punishment

Threatens emotional well-being.

Extra classwork

Assigning work as a form of punishment.

Out-of-school suspension

Removal from school; usually ineffective.

Missing recess

Skipping breaks, which can reduce focus.

Elation effect

Increased reinforcement boosts response.

Depression effect

Decreased reinforcement reduces response.

Reinforcement

Increases likelihood of a behavior.

Punishment

Decreases likelihood of a behavior.

Behavioral contrast

Behavior differs across contexts with different reinforcement/punishment.

Contingency contract

an agreement that specifies certain expectations for the student and the consequences of meeting those behaviors.

Extinction (general)

Removing reinforcement to eliminate behavior.

Mastery learning

Students must master one concept before moving to the next.

Backward design

Planning assessments before instruction.

Formative assessment

Ongoing checks to improve instruction.

Rubric

Scoring tool that outlines performance criteria.

Summative assessment

Final evaluation of learning.

High-stakes test

Major tests impacting promotion, funding, etc.