PsyEl mod 3
Foundations of Behaviorism
Behaviorism – Focuses only on the relation between observable behavior and environmental events or stimuli; concentrates on observable, measurable behaviors and not on mental processes.
Basic Assumptions in Behaviorism
Principles of learning – Should apply equally to different behaviors and species.
Equipotentiality – Human beings and other animals learn in similar ways.
Stimuli and responses – Learning processes are studied objectively through them.
Internal processes – Are excluded or minimized in theoretical explanations.
Black box metaphor – Organism viewed as a black box; stimuli go in and responses come out.
Learning involves behavior change – Emphasis on observable changes.
Tabula rasa – Organisms are born as blank slates.
Environmental events – Primary drivers of learning.
Parsimony – Theories should be as simple as possible.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning – Learning occurs when two stimuli are presented simultaneously.
Pavlov’s Experiment Steps
Neutral stimulus (NS) – A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – Automatically leads to a response.
Unconditioned response (UCR) – The natural response to UCS.
Conditioned stimulus (CS) – Previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response.
Conditioned response (CR) – Learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning
Associative bias – Certain associations are more likely than others.
Contingency – CS must occur close in time to UCS.
Extinction (Classical) – CS without UCS weakens CR over time.
Spontaneous recovery – Reappearance of CR after rest period following extinction.
Generalization (Classical) – Responding to stimuli similar to the CS.
Stimulus discrimination (Classical) – Differentiating between stimuli based on UCS pairing.
Higher-order conditioning – NS1 becomes CS1; NS2 paired with CS1 becomes CS2.
Counterconditioning – Stronger new CS-CR association replaces old one.
Systematic desensitization – Gradual exposure to anxiety-inducing stimuli while relaxed.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning – Behavior followed by reinforcement is more likely to recur.
Puzzle box – Thorndike’s device showing learning by trial and error.
Law of effect – Behaviors followed by satisfaction are strengthened; discomfort weakens them.
Revised law of effect – Rewards strengthen behavior; punishment has indirect effects.
Primary reinforcer – Naturally satisfying (e.g., food, water).
Secondary reinforcer – Gains reinforcing power through association (e.g., money).
Positive reinforcement – Adding a stimulus to increase behavior.
Social reinforcers – Gestures like praise or attention.
Material reinforcers – Tangible items like toys or food.
Active reinforcers – Opportunity to engage in preferred activity.
Premack principle – A preferred activity can reinforce a less preferred one.
Token reinforcers – Items that can be exchanged for desired rewards.
Positive feedback – Reinforcement that includes affirming messages.
Intrinsic reinforcers – Internal satisfaction or emotional reward.
Negative reinforcement – Removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.
Common Phenomena in Operant Conditioning
Superstitious behavior – Reinforcement strengthens coincidental behaviors.
Shaping – Reinforcing successive approximations of desired behavior.
Chaining – Reinforcing sequences of behaviors.
Extinction (Operant) – Behavior decreases when no longer reinforced.
Extinction burst – Temporary increase in behavior when reinforcement stops.
Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous reinforcement – Every correct response is reinforced.
Intermittent reinforcement – Some responses are reinforced, some are not.
Ratio schedule – Reinforcement after a number of responses.
Fixed ratio schedule – Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses.
Variable ratio schedule – Reinforcement after changing number of responses.
Interval schedule – Reinforcement after a time interval.
Fixed interval schedule – Constant time interval between reinforcement.
Variable interval schedule – Changing time intervals between reinforcement.
Differential schedule – Reinforcement based on rate of responding.
DRH schedule – Reinforcement for high response rate.
DRL schedule – Reinforcement for low response rate.
Antecedent Stimuli & Responsibility
Cueing (Prompting) – Using cues to direct behavior.
Discriminative stimuli – Indicate reinforcement is available for a behavior.
Setting events – Contexts in which certain behaviors are more likely.
Generalization (Operant) – Applying learned behavior to similar situations.
Stimulus discrimination (Operant) – Learning which stimuli lead to reinforcement.
Behavioral momentum – Continuing a behavior pattern once started.
Avoidance learning – Learning to avoid an unpleasant stimulus.
Stimulus (avoidance) – Signal for onset of an aversive event.
Active avoidance learning – Deliberate behavior to avoid aversive stimulus.
Passive avoidance learning – Avoidance by not behaving in a specific way.
Punishment
Punishment I (Presentation punishment) – Introducing an aversive stimulus.
Punishment II (Removal punishment) – Taking away a pleasant stimulus.
Effective Forms of Punishment
Verbal reprimands – Brief, unemotional scolding.
Restitution – Returning environment to its original state.
Restitutional overcorrection – Improving the situation beyond the original state.
Positive-practice overcorrection – Repeating correct behavior.
Time-out – Temporary removal from reinforcement.
In-house suspension – Removal from class but kept in school.
Response cost – Taking away earned reinforcers.
Ineffective Forms of Punishment
Physical punishment – Use of mild physical force.
Psychological punishment – Threatens emotional well-being.
Extra classwork – Assigning work as a form of punishment.
Out-of-school suspension – Removal from school; usually ineffective.
Missing recess – Skipping breaks, which can reduce focus.
Cognition and Motivation in Behaviorist Theories
Elation effect – Increased reinforcement boosts response.
Depression effect – Decreased reinforcement reduces response.
Reinforcement – Increases likelihood of a behavior.
Punishment – Decreases likelihood of a behavior.
Behavioral contrast – Behavior differs across contexts with different reinforcement/punishment.
Contingency contract – Agreement outlining expectations and consequences.
Extinction (general) – Removing reinforcement to eliminate behavior.
Mastery learning – Students must master one concept before moving to the next.
School Assessment Practices
Backward design – Planning assessments before instruction.
Formative assessment – Ongoing checks to improve instruction.
Rubric – Scoring tool that outlines performance criteria.
Summative assessment – Final evaluation of learning.
High-stakes test – Major tests impacting promotion, funding, etc.