Chapter 4: Learning

classical conditioning

classical conditioning

the subject learns to give a response it already knows to a new stimulus.

Response

is a reaction to a stimulus.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

initially does not elicit a response.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS or US)

reflexively, or automatically, brings about the unconditioned response (UCR or UR).

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

is a NS at first, but when paired with the UCS, it elicits the conditioned response (CR).

Aversive conditioning

Conditioning involving an unpleasant or harmful unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer, such as this conditioning of Baby Albert.

Spontaneous recovery

Although not fully understood by behaviorists, sometimes the extinguished response will show up again later without the re-pairing of the UCS and CS.

Generalization

occurs when stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR without any training.

Discrimination

occurs when only the CS produces the CR.

Stimulus

is a change in the environment that elicits (brings about) a response.

Higher-Order Conditioning

Higher-order conditioning, also called second-order or secondary conditioning, occurs when a well-learned CS is paired with an NS to produce a CR to the NS.

Operant Conditioning

In operant conditioning, an active subject voluntarily emits behaviors and can learn new behaviors.

Instrumental learning

is a type of learning that involves the acquisition and use of skills or strategies to achieve a specific goal. It can involve trial-and-error processes, imitation, reinforcement, modeling, memorization and more.

Law of Effect

states that behaviors followed by satisfying or positive consequences are strengthened (more likely to occur), while behaviors followed by annoying or negative consequences are weakened (less likely to occur).

Positive reinforcement

or reward training, emission of a behavior or response is followed by a reinforcer that increases the probability that the response will occur again.

Premack principle

a more probable behavior can be used as a reinforcer for a less probable one.

Negative reinforcement

takes away an aversive or unpleasant consequence after a behavior has been given.

Punishment training

a learner’s response is followed by an aversive consequence.

Omission training

In this training procedure, a response by the learner is followed by taking away something of value from the learner.

Aversive conditioning

is a type of learning in which an organism learns to associate an unpleasant stimulus with a particular behavior.

Avoidance behavior

takes away the aversive stimulus before it begins.

Secondary reinforcer

is something neutral that, when associated with a primary reinforcer, becomes rewarding.

Generalized reinforcer

is a secondary reinforcer that can be associated with a number of different primary reinforcers.

Token economy

has been used extensively in institutions such as mental hospitals and jails.

Primary reinforcer

is something that is biologically important and, thus, rewarding.

Shaping

positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior, is an effective way of teaching a new behavior.

Chaining

is used to establish a specific sequence of behaviors by initially positively reinforcing each behavior in a desired sequence and then later rewarding only the completed sequence.

Partial reinforcement

schedules based on the number of desired responses are ratio schedules.

Interval schedules

Schedules based on time.

Fixed ratio

schedules reinforce the desired behavior after a specific number of responses have been made.

Fixed interval

schedules reinforce the first desired response made after a specific length of time.

Variable ratio

schedule, the number of responses needed before reinforcement occurs changes at random around an average.

Variable interval

schedule, the amount of time that elapses before reinforcement of the behavior changes.

Continuous reinforcement

is the schedule that provides reinforcement every time the behavior is exhibited by the organism.

Robert Rescorla

suggesting a contingency model of classical conditioning that the CS tells the organism that the US will follow.

Insight

is the sudden appearance of an answer or solution to a problem.

Latent Learning

is defined as learning in the absence of rewards.

Social Learning

which occurs by watching the behavior of a model.

Conditioned taste aversion

an intense dislike and avoidance of a food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning.

Instinctive drift

a conditioned response that drifts back toward the natural (instinctive) behavior of the organism

Preparedness

means that through evolution, animals are biologically predisposed to easily learn behaviors related to their survival as a species, and that behaviors contrary to an animal’s natural tendencies are learned slowly or not at all.