Chapter 4: Learning

**classical conditioning**

the subject learns to give a response it already knows to a new stimulus.

**Response**

is a reaction to a stimulus.

**Neutral stimulus** (NS)

initially does not elicit a response.

**Unconditioned stimulus** (UCS or US)

reflexively, or automatically, brings about the unconditioned response (UCR or UR).

**Conditioned stimulus** (CS)

is a NS at first, but when paired with the UCS, it elicits the conditioned response (CR).

**Aversive conditioning**

Conditioning involving an unpleasant or harmful unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer, such as this conditioning of Baby Albert.

**Spontaneous recovery**

Although not fully understood by behaviorists, sometimes the extinguished response will show up again later without the re-pairing of the UCS and CS.

**Generalization**

occurs when stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR without any training.

**Discrimination**

occurs when only the CS produces the CR.

**Stimulus**

is a change in the environment that elicits (brings about) a response.

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**Higher-Order Conditioning**

Higher-order conditioning, also called second-order or secondary conditioning, occurs when a well-learned CS is paired with an NS to produce a CR to the NS.

**Operant Conditioning**

In operant conditioning, an active subject voluntarily emits behaviors and can learn new behaviors.

**Instrumental learning**

is a type of learning that involves the acquisition and use of skills or strategies to achieve a specific goal. It can involve trial-and-error processes, imitation, reinforcement, modeling, memorization and more.

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**Law of Effect**

states that behaviors followed by satisfying or positive consequences are strengthened (more likely to occur), while behaviors followed by annoying or negative consequences are weakened (less likely to occur).

**Positive reinforcement**

or reward training, emission of a behavior or response is followed by a reinforcer that increases the probability that the response will occur again.

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**Premack principle**

a more probable behavior can be used as a reinforcer for a less probable one.

**Negative reinforcement**

takes away an aversive or unpleasant consequence after a behavior has been given.

**Punishment training**

a learner’s response is followed by an aversive consequence.

**Omission training**

In this training procedure, a response by the learner is followed by taking away something of value from the learner.

**Aversive conditioning**

is a type of learning in which an organism learns to associate an unpleasant stimulus with a particular behavior.

**Avoidance behavior**

takes away the aversive stimulus before it begins.

**Secondary reinforcer**

is something neutral that, when associated with a primary reinforcer, becomes rewarding.

**Generalized reinforcer**

is a secondary reinforcer that can be associated with a number of different primary reinforcers.

**Token economy**

has been used extensively in institutions such as mental hospitals and jails.

**Primary reinforcer**

is something that is biologically important and, thus, rewarding.

**Shaping**

positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior, is an effective way of teaching a new behavior.

**Chaining**

is used to establish a specific sequence of behaviors by initially positively reinforcing each behavior in a desired sequence and then later rewarding only the completed sequence.

**Partial reinforcement**

schedules based on the number of desired responses are ratio schedules.

**Interval schedules**

Schedules based on time.

**Fixed ratio**

schedules reinforce the desired behavior after a specific number of responses have been made.

**Fixed interval**

schedules reinforce the first desired response made after a specific length of time.

**Variable ratio**

schedule, the number of responses needed before reinforcement occurs changes at random around an average.

**Variable interval**

schedule, the amount of time that elapses before reinforcement of the behavior changes.

**Continuous reinforcement**

is the schedule that provides reinforcement every time the behavior is exhibited by the organism.

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**Robert Rescorla**

suggesting a contingency model of classical conditioning that the CS tells the organism that the US will follow.

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**Insight**

is the sudden appearance of an answer or solution to a problem.

**Latent Learning**

is defined as learning in the absence of rewards.

**Social Learning**

which occurs by watching the behavior of a model.

**Conditioned taste aversion**

an intense dislike and avoidance of a food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning.

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**Instinctive drift**

a conditioned response that drifts back toward the natural (instinctive) behavior of the organism

**Preparedness**

means that through evolution, animals are biologically predisposed to easily learn behaviors related to their survival as a species, and that behaviors contrary to an animal’s natural tendencies are learned slowly or not at all.