Mammology Exam 3

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__________ characteristics:

  • secretes milk onto brood patch

  • altricial young

  • lays eggs (kept in pouch (echidna) or in burrow (platypus)

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1

__________ characteristics:

  • secretes milk onto brood patch

  • altricial young

  • lays eggs (kept in pouch (echidna) or in burrow (platypus)

Monotreme

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2

__________ characteristics:

  • altricial young

  • young are kept in “marsupium” (pouch)

Marsupial

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3

__________ characteristics:

  • produce young on gradient from altricial to precocial

  • long gestation period relative to lactation period

Placental

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4

Which is more energetically expensive: lactation or gestation?

Lactation

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5
<p>A</p>

A

Early Synapsid

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<p>B</p>

B

Monotreme

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<p>C</p>

C

Marsupials and Placentals

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__________ characteristics:

  • males have venomous spur

  • semi aquatic, semi fossorial

  • insectivores

  • electroreception in bill

Ornithorhynchidae

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9

Platypus belong to family __________

Ornithorhynchidae

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10

__________ characteristics:

  • insectivorous (myrmecophagus)

  • quills

  • electroreception in bill

Tachyglossidae

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11

Echidnas belong to family _________

Tachyglossidae

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12

Platypus and Echidna are __________

Monotremes

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13

Marsupials make up __% of mammals

6

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14

The only marsupial in N. America: ____________

Virginia Opossum

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__________ characteristics:

  • found in N. America

  • opposable pollex (thumb)

  • incrassated tail

  • marsupial

Didelphidae

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<p>These are all ________</p>

These are all ________

Marsupials

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17

____________ ___________ is when two unrelated species evolve similar characteristics to occupy a similar niche

Convergent Evolution

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The “superorder” ___________ means “Beasts of Africa”

Afrotheria

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19

Afrotheria contains clades ____________ and ____________

Afroinsectiphilia Paenungulata

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Clade ________________ of Afrotheria contains Orders Tubulindentata, Macroscelidea, and Afrosoricida

Afroinsectiphilia

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Family _______________ characteristics:

  • proboscis

  • Easter, Central, Southern Africa

  • large hind limbs

  • large ears

  • mostly insectivorous

  • morphologically convergent with rodents

  • ecologically convergent with shrews

  • socially monogamous

  • maintain intricate trail network

  • Sengis and Elephant Shrews

Macroscelididae

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Tenerecidae, Potamogalidae, and Chrysochloridae are all members of Order ______________

Afrosoricida

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Family _______________ characteristics:

  • Restricted to Madagascar

  • 31 species, 8 genera

  • Highly diverse

  • adaptive radiation

Tenrecidae

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Family _______________ characteristics:

  • Restricted to Congo Basin

  • semi aquatic

  • endangered

  • eats aquatic insects

  • poorly studied

  • otter shrews

Potamogalidae

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Family _______________ characteristics:

  • blind

  • fossorial

  • insectivorous

  • soft soil specialists

  • daily/seasonal torpor

  • convergent with moles

Chrysochloridae

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Aardvarks are the monotypic member of Order ________________

Tubulindentata

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Family _______________ characteristics:

  • Aardvarks

  • distributed south of Sahara

  • insectivorous (myrmecophagus)

  • long sticky tongue

  • peg-like teeth

  • strong diggers

  • claws are nail/hoof-like

Orycteropodidae

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Clade _____________ of Afrotheria contains Orders Sirenia, Hyracoidea, and Proboscidea

Paenungulata

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Characteristics of Clade ____________________:

  • herbivorous

  • hindgut fermenters

  • lateral molar progression (mesial drift)

    • Only Proboscidea and Sirenia

  • two mammae

  • short nails (no claws)

Paenungulata

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Order ___________ of clade Paenungulata characteristics:

  • Contains families Dugongidae (Dugong) and Trichechidae (Manatees)

  • marine/aquatic

  • only herbivorous marine mammals

  • restricted to shallow water

  • hind gut fermenters

  • horizontal lungs

  • lateral molar progression

Sirenia

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Order ___________ of clade Paenungulata characteristics:

  • 5 species

  • Hyraxes

  • Three hind toes

  • glandular pads for climbing

  • tree and rock species

  • colonial

  • upper incisors form tusks

  • two large cecum

Hyracoidea

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Order ___________ of clade Paenungulata characteristics:

  • large proboscis

  • large ears

  • sparsely furred

  • fatty cushion on bottom of foot

  • lateral molar progression

  • elephants

Proboscidea

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These characteristics are shared by all ____________

  • Refined hands and digits with nails instead of claws

  • Binocular stereoscopic vision

  • postorbital bar or plate

  • long lived, slow reproduction, extended development time relative to body size

  • spectrum of social systems

  • bunodont molars, large canines, incisors (mostly omnivorous)

  • reduced rostrum and sense of smell

  • large absolute and relative brain size

Primates

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<p>A</p>

A

Post orbital plate

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<p>B</p>

B

Post Orbital Bar

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Order Primates contains 2 suborders: _______________ and ______________

Strepsirhini Haplorhini

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Suborder _____________ characteristics:

  • post orbital plate

  • shorter rostrum

  • continuous upper incisors (no gap in middle)

Haplorhini

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Suborder _____________ characteristics:

  • post orbital bar

  • longer rostrum

  • gap in upper incisors

Strepsirhini

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<p>A is a species from Primate suborder _________________</p>

A is a species from Primate suborder _________________

Strepsirhini

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<p>B is a species from Primate suborder _________________</p>

B is a species from Primate suborder _________________

Haplorhini

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Tarsiers, Monkeys and Apes are part of suborder

Haplorhini

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Lemurs, lorises, and aye-ayes are part of suborder

Strepsirhini

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Group containing Monkeys and Apes (excludes Tarsiers)

Simiiformes

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Order ____________ characteristics:

  • worldwide distribution except Antarctica and N.Z.

  • most are born altricial

  • single pair of upper/lower incisors

  • Diastema

  • anterior of incisors coated with enamel, creates chisel shape

  • largest mammalian order

Rodentia

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<p>A</p>

A

Protrogomorph

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<p>B</p>

B

Sciuromorph

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<p><strong>C</strong></p>

C

Myomorph

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<p>D</p>

D

Hystricomorph

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<p><em>Species</em> with morphology A</p>

Species with morphology A

Mountain Beaver

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<p>Suborders with morphology B</p>

Suborders with morphology B

Sciuromorpha Castoromorpha

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<p>Suborder with morphology C</p>

Suborder with morphology C

Myomorpha

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<p>Suborders with morphology D</p>

Suborders with morphology D

Hystricomorpha Anomaluromorpha

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Rodentia suborder ____________ contains Beavers, gophers, kangaroo rats and kangaroo mice

Castorimorpha

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Rodentia suborder ____________ contains mice, rats, gerbils, hamsters, lemmings, voles

Myomorpha

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Rodentia suborder ____________ contains squirrels, chipmunks, mountain beaver

Sciuromorpha

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Rodentia suborder ____________ contains “square-faced rodents” (porcupine)

Hystricomorpha

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Rodentia suborder ____________ contains scaly-tailed squirrels and springhares

Anomaluromorpha

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<p>A and C mandible morphology</p>

A and C mandible morphology

Sciurognathous

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<p>B and D mandible morphology</p>

B and D mandible morphology

Hystricognathous

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__% of Rodentia species are at risk

20

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Order __________ characteristics":

  • 92 species

  • mostly found worldwise (except Australia, N.Z, Antarctica, Philippines, Madagascar)

  • Herbivorous and coprophagus

  • hindgut fermenters

  • second set of incisors behind main set

Lagomorpha

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Hares give birth to _______ young

precocial

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Pika and rabbits give birth to _______ young

altricial

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__% of Lagomorphs are at risk

24

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Characteristics of Order ____________:

  • 300 species

  • all diet types

  • highest size diversity of any order

Carnivora

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The two Carnivora suborders are: ______________ and ______________

Feliforma Caniforma

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Suborder _____________ contains:

  • Felidae (cats)

  • Hyaenidae (Hyenas)

  • Nandiniidae (Palm Civet)

  • Viverridae (Civet)

  • Prionodontidae (Linsangs)

  • Herpestidae (Mongooses)

  • Eupleridae (Madagascar Mongooses, fossa)

Feliforma

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Suborder _____________ contains:

  • Canidae (dogs)

  • Ursidae (bears)

  • Mustelidae (weasels)

  • Procyonidae (raccoons)

  • Mephitidae (skunks)

  • Ailuridae (red panda)

  • Phocidae (earless ‘true’ seals)

  • Otariidae (eared seals)

  • Odobenidae (walrus)

Caniforma

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Family _______ characteristics:

  • 2 subfamilies (Pantherinae, Felinae)

  • 40 species

  • almost global

  • obligate carnivores

  • stalking/stealth predator

Felidae

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Family _______ characteristics:

•13–14 genera
• 33–37 diverse species
• distributed across tropical and subtropical habitats in Africa, Asia and Middle East
• carnivorous, omnivorous, frugivorous, scavengers.
• diurnal or nocturnal
• solitary or social
• terrestrial, semiaquatic, or arboreal
• small to medium body size

Viverridae

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Family ______________ characteristics:

• 13–16 genera
• 35–36 species
• Distributed across Africa, the Middle East, and Asia
• Small, slender bodies and long tails and snouts
• Inhabit grasslands, savanna, and forested habitats
• Dietary generalists (small vertebrates, insects, vegetation, carrion)
• Solitary or social

Herpestidae

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Family _______ characteristics:

• 13 genera
• 37 species
• Most widely distributed family of carnivores; occur on all continents except Antarctica
• Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and gray wolf (Canis lupus) most widely distributed mammal
• Habitats range from hot, dry deserts, grasslands, savannas, forests, arctic ice, to urban landscapes
• Primarily carnivorous but will consume plants, fruits, insects

Canidae

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Family ___________ characteristics:

• 6 genera
• 12–14
• restricted to North and South America from Canada to Argentina
• inhabit temperate and tropical forested
• typically have long, bushy tails with alternating light
and dark rings (except in the kinkajou [Potos flavus]), and black facemasks or facial marks.
• least carnivorous of the carnivores; dentition is generalized and adapted for an omnivorous diet

Procyonidae

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Group containing:

− Phocidae (earless ‘true’ seals)
− Otariidae (eared seals)
− Odobenidae (walrus)

Pinnipedia

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_______________ characteristics:

• Thought to have evolved from an otter-like ancestor
• Short, broad humerus and femur (arrows)
and elongated foot bones for ‘flippers’
• Diet consists of fish, octopus, penguins, and more
• Many threatened by overfishing
• Historically threatened by over hunting; fur/hide, blubber, meat

Pinnipedia

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Subfamily _______________ characteristics:

• the “big cats”
• The structure of the larynx enables them to roar

Pantherinae

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Subfamily __________ characteristics:

• the “small cats”
• Bony hyoid enables them to purr but not roar

Felinae

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Species in subfamily ________________:

  • lion

  • tiger

  • jaguar

  • leopard (regular, clouded, snow)

Pantherinae

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Species in subfamily _____________:

  • Bay cat

  • Caracal

  • Ocelot

  • Lynx

  • Puma

  • Leopard

  • domestic cat

Felinae

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<p>These are __________ teeth</p>

These are __________ teeth

carnasial

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__________ characteristics:

• Light, streamlined body – for short, explosive bursts of speed (only about 30secs)
• Large nasal passages increased oxygen - due to the smaller size canines
• Enlarged heart and lungs allow enrichment of oxygenated blood
• Tail is a rudder-like means of steering that enables them to make sharp turns, to out- flank antelopes
• The protracted claws increase grip over the ground
• Longer limbs than what is typical for other cats of this size

Cheetah

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Superorder ___________ contains Orders Perissodactyla and Cetariodactyla

Euungulata

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_____________ characteristics:

• Walk on tips of their toes, which end in
keratinized hoofs
• Reduced number of toes (<5)
• Heel bone (calcaneum, shaded) articulates with the astragalus (a) rather than fibula like in other mammals
• Perissodactyls (odd-toed; 1, 3)
• Cannon bone (b) found in Equidae
• Cetartiodactyls (even-toed; 2, 4)
• Digits 2, 5 are vestigial and form “dew claws”

Ungulate

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Order ___________ characteristics:

• Three extant families, ~ 17 species
• Equidae
• Rhinocerotidae
• Tapiridae
• Upper incisors
• Lophodont molars
• Long upper jaw; diastema
• Herbivorous
• Cecal (hindgut) fermentation

Perissodactyla

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Family _______ characteristics:

• 7-9 species
• Originated and diversified in Great Basin of North America
• Modern distribution across Africa and Eurasia
• Most species are threatened or endangered

Equidae

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Family _________ characteristics:

• 2 genera, 4 species
• Distributed across the tropics of South America and SE Asia
• Inhabit dense forest, mixed feeders
• Proboscis like rostrum
• 4 toes on front foot, 3 toes on back
• all threatened or endangered

Tapiridae

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Family _________ characteristics:

• 4 genera, 5 species
• “nose horn”
• Characteristic horn(s) on rostrum, which have no bony core or keratinized sheath, simply a mass of keratinized fibers
• All species threatened or endangered
• Occupy tropical rainforests, floodplains, grasslands, and scrublands

Rhinocerotidae

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Family __________ characteristics:

• “Even-toed ungulates”
• 10 extant families
• ~205 species (much more diverse than Perissodactyla)
• Horns and antlers (except Suids, Hippos)
• Mostly ruminants (except Suids)
• No upper incisors (except Suids)
• Distributed globally, except Antarctica and Australia
• Most economically important group of mammals

Cetartiodactyla

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Suborder __________ characteristics:

• Largest group of ungulates, 6 families
• Cervidae (deer, moose, elk, caribou)
• Bovidae (sheep, antelope, buffalo)
• Antilocapridae (pronghorn)
• Giraffidae (giraffes)
• Tragulidae (chevrons, mouse deer)
• Moschidae (musk deer)
• All have horns or antlers
• Globally distributed
• Most economically important group
• domestication
• sustenance hunting

Ruminantia

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Suborder __________ characteristics:

• Two families
• Pigs/hogs (Suidae) & peccaries (Tayassuidae)
• Most primitive group of ungulates
• Globally distributed except Antartica
• Habitat generalists
• Omnivorous
• Monogastric digestion
• Upper incisors, bunodont molars
• Tusks
• Large litter size

Suina

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Suborder ____________ characteristics:

• Camels, alpacas, llamas, guanacos, vicunas
• Three-chambered stomach, “simple ruminants”
• Originated and diversified in Great Basin of North America
• Modern distribution across South American and Eurasian deserts/arid grasslands
• Soft hooves with nails (unlike other ungulates), adaptation for walking in sand, soft surfaces

Tylopoda

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Suborder ______________ characteristics:

• “River horse”, aquatic
• Two genera, two species (common hippopotamus, pygmy hippotamus)
• Diverged from cetaceans around 55 mya
• Common hippo ~ 3,000 lb, second largest land mammal after elephants
• Used to be grouped with pigs because bunodont molars
• Herbivorous, feed on land
• Hydrodefecator
• Large tusk-like canines
• Used to be much more speciose

Whippomorpha

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Order ______________ characteristics:

• Sister group to family Hippopotamidae
• Transitioned from land to sea during Eocene (50 mya)

• Earliest fossils from Indo-Pakistan region
• Toothed
• Semi-aquatic
• Foraged in shallow water
• Astragalus present in hind limbs

• Fusiform body type
• Dense bones allow for diving
• Blubber
• “Telescoped” skull

Cetacea

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Posture similar to reptiles, larger eggs/ovaries, brood patches, and cloaca are all characteristics of:

Monotremes

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Reduced pectoral girdle, smaller uteruses, forked genitalia, and pouches are characteristics of:

Marsupials

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Orders Paucituberculata, Microbiotheria, Dasyuromorphia, Peramelemorphia, Notoryctemorphia are all:

Marsupials

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Afroinsectiphilia and Paenungulata are both clades within:

Afrotheria

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98

Orders Macroscelidea, Afrosoricida and Tubulindentata are part of clade:

Afroinsectiphilia

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Orders: Sirenia, Hyracoidea, and Proboscidea are all part of clade:

Paenungulata

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100

Lemurs, aye-ayes, and lorises are all part of suborder:

Strepsirhini

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Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.
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