Ecology
 Abiotic- a non living thing. Ex. water, air, metal

 Biotic- a living thing ex. a mushroom, a dog, a plant

*remember “A” means not and “bio” means life

 In order to be alive you must: Grow, adapt, develop, use energy (metabolism), reproduce, have cells, react, and maintain homeostasis.

Homeostasis- “staying the same”- maintaining a constant environment in your body. Ex. shivering or sweating to keep your body temperature the same.

 Food chains: show the flow of energy in the ecosystem. Every food chain MUST start with a producer.

Producer or Autotroph- an organism that makes its own food like a plant

Consumer or Heterotroph- an organism that has to eat

 Types of Consumers:
Herbivore- eats only plants ex. rabbit
Primary Consumer- 1st thing to eat (a herbivore)
Secondary Consumer- the 2nd thing to eat (a carnivore or omnivore)
Carnivore- eats only meat ex. lion
Omnivore- eats both plants and meat ex. human
Scavenger- eats animals that something else has killed ex. vulture
Decomposer- breaks down dead material. Ex. bacteria, fungi, worms

*only 10% of the energy passes from one organism to another

Energy Pyramid
 Niche- the job or role an organism has in its ecosystem or how it makes a living Ex. a rabbit’s niche is to eat vegetables and urinate in the garden.

 Habitat- where an organism lives. Ex. a rabbit lives in the garden
*Two birds can have the same habitat but different niches. How? They live in the same
tree but one bird eats the seeds of the tree while the other eats the flowers.

Environmental problems- Humans are responsible for almost all modern day environmental issues.

 Habitat Destruction- destroying the home of an organism. This could happen because of deforestation (cutting down trees), or because of invasive species or melting glaciers, etc.

 Biodiversity- having many types of living things. This is a good thing and
unfortunately humans are killing so many organisms we are losing biodiversity.

 Bioaccumulation or Biomagnification- when poisons build up in the food chain.
The higher up you go in the food chain the more poison there is. Ex. The USA used to spray DDT which is a pesticide on our crops. It ended up in our rivers and lakes. Small fish would then have this DDT in their system. The big fish would eat the small fish and get even more DDT. Eagles would eat the big fish. Eagles ended up with tons of DDT in their system which caused them to crush their eggs.

Rachel Carson discovered the connection between the DDT and the eagles.

In this energy pyramid both energy and biomass decrease the higher up you go. Each trophic level gets 10% of the energy from the previous level (10g of DDT 1000g of DDT 10,000g of DDT.)

 The pH scale helps determine if something is a Base or an Acid. Cells and
organisms like to be at a neutral pH.

 Acid Rain- this is rain that has a pH of less than 7. It can kill off whole forests
and kill fish in lakes and rivers. It is caused by air pollution like burning fossil
fuels.

 Ozone Layer- Ozone is a layer of gases which filters out the harmful UV radiation from the sun. Without the ozone humans would be exposed to radiation
and have more cases of skin cancer. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) which are
made from refrigerators and spray cans destroy the ozone layer.

 Nonnative or invasive species- these are organisms which are from another
country. They do not have any natural predators so they take over their new
environment pushing out other native species. Ex. Boa Constrictor has been put into the everglades. It has no natural predators and is taking over. This is not good for other animal species in the area.

 Stewardship and Sustainable practices: when humans work to protect their environment Ex. recycling, replanting trees, cleaning streams and rivers

Levels of organization:
The smallest level of organization is the CELL.
A bunch of Cells make TISSUES.
A bunch of tissues make ORGANS. Ex. heart
A bunch of organs make ORGAN SYSTEMS. Ex. Cardiovascular system
Several organ systems make an organism. Ex. Cow
Several of the same organisms in an area is a POPULATION. Ex. Herd of cows
Several different populations in the same area is a COMMUNITY. Ex. Cow, grass, rabbit
A community (Biotic) with all of the abiotic factors is an ECOSYSTEM. Ex. Cow, grass, rabbit, temperature, rain, dirt
All of the areas of earth which can sustain life is the Biosphere.

Relationships
 All living things are in a relationship and when it is a close relationship it is called Symbiosis.

 There are three main Symbiotic relationships:
Mutualism-   Both organisms benefit Example: the sea anemone provides a home for the clown fish and the clown fish protects the sea anemone from predators
Commensalism-  one organism benefits and the other doesn’t care (not
hurt or helped) Example: a cow walking in a field stirs up insects for the cow bird to eat
Parasitism-   One organism benefits while the other one is harmed Example- a tic on a dog

 Two other non-symbiotic relationships:
Predator/Prey and Competition *Competition limits the growth of a population

Carbon Cycle- Carbon is an element that is in all living things on earth. It cycles the earth mainly in the form of Carbon Dioxide and Glucose.

 Three ways Carbon Dioxide gets into the atmosphere: respiration, burning fossil fuels, and open burning
 The main way Carbon is removed from the atmosphere is: Photosynthesis

 Unfortunately due to the burning of fossil fuels humans are releasing way too
much carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

 Too much carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) is causing the Sun’s radiation to be
trapped on the earth which is causing the earth’s temperature to rise. We call this
the greenhouse effect and global warming. This causes the glaciers to melt and
the oceans to rise.

Population growth
Populations will grow unchecked until they are limited by limiting factors. Limiting
factors are resources like water, space, food, etc that a population can run out of.

 There are three population curves:
Carrying Capacity- the number of organisms an ecosystem can support
J-curve. This population grows extremely fast (exponential growth). The population
uses up all the resources and will crash and all die out.
S-curve. This population grows until it reaches it carrying capacity. Then it will stabilize
over the carrying capacity.
Burning too much fossil fuels causes excess CO2 in Atmosphere Radiation from sun trapped by CO2 (greenhouse effect)

Earth’s temperatures rise = global warming

Carrying Capacity makes the Predator/Prey curve-Predator and prey population growth are opposite of each other. When the predator is up the prey is down and vice versa.

Human Population
 Birthrate- the number of people born each year

Deathrate- the number of people that die each year

If birthrate and deathrate are equal then no population growth
If high birthrate and low deathrate then population will grow
If low birthrate and high deathrate then the population will decrease.

 Age structure graphs are a way to show how the population of a country is
distributed.

There are two main age structure graphs- rapid and stable growth.

Rapid growth- has lots of kids and not very many old people
- is typical of a developing country (poor)

Stable Growth- not many children and lots of older people
- is typical of a developed or industrialized country (wealthy)

Chemistry
 A Macromolecule is a large molecule. If a molecule had carbon than it is
considered an Organic molecule.

 There are four main macromolecules that are important to biology:
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

Carbohydrates- these are sugars used for quick energy. Their building blocks are
monosaccharides. Elements made of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio.

Types:
Monosaccharides---- one sugar----examples Glucose which is made in photosynthesis and fructose which is in honey and fruit

Disaccharides--2 sugars or 2 monosaccharides connected---
example sucrose which is table sugar

Polysaccharides---many sugars- examples Cellulose which is in cell walls and starch which is used for plant energy storage.

Lipids- these are fats, waxes and oils. They are used for long term energy storage and for
the cell membrane. Also used for insulation for the cold in animals. These are made of long chains of carbon and hydrogen and a little bit of oxygen.

Triglyceride- is a fat made of a glycerol backbone and three fatty acid chains.
Glucose

Proteins- these help restore tissues. There are 20 amino acids. They are made in the
ribosome.

Proteins are made of Amino acids held together by peptide bonds.

Important Proteins:
Enzymes (see enzymes in this packet)
Hemoglobin- a protein in a blood cell that helps carry oxygen in the blood.
Insulin- a protein in the body which helps maintain proper blood sugar levels. If there are
problems making insulin than a person could have diabetes.

Nucleic Acids: These are the molecules which hold our genetic information.

There are two main examples are RNA and DNA
They are made of Nucleotides.

Nucleotides are made of a phosphate, sugar, and base.

How do we test for the 4 macromolecules?
Lipids (mayo)- brown paper bag---a positive test will turn the bag transparent
Starches (cracker)- iodine- a positive test will turn the starch purple
Glucose- benedicts-a positive test will turn orange
Protein (tuna) – biurets- a positive test will turn purple

Enzymes
 Enzymes can also be called Catalysts. All enzymes end with –ase. Ex. Lactase, Maltase. They can be used over and over again.

 These are proteins that help speed up reactions. Without them most of the
reactions that happen in our body would happen so slowly that we would die.

 Every reaction needs a certain amount of energy to start (activation energy).
Enzymes lower the amount of reaction energy needed. So since the reaction
doesn’t need as much energy it can go faster.

 Enzymes fit together with substrates. Substrates are whatever chemical the
enzyme is working on. They fit like a lock and key. Enzymes only fit their
specific substrate.

 The place where the substrate fits into the enzyme is called the active site.
 If you change the shape of the enzyme it won’t work anymore. You can do this by
changes in temperature or pH level. Its called denaturation.

 People who are missing the enzyme Lactase are Lactose intolerant. Meaning they
cannot break down the sugar in diary products. So if they were to drink milk they
would have an upset stomach.

Cells
There are two main types of cells Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
 Prokaryotes do NOT have a nucleus or any other organelles. (They do have ribosomes.)

 Eukaryotes DO have a nucleus and all organelles.
Animals, plants, protists and fungi are all eukaryotes.
Important Organelles:
Nucleus- “the brain of the cell” Controls all cell functions
Cell/plasma membrane- controls what enters and leaves the cell.
Ribosomes- these make the proteins in the cell
Mitochondria- “powerhouse” of the cell. Provides energy by Cellular respiration.
Cell wall- this is only in plants. Provides protection and support for the cell
Chloroplast- this is only in plants. This is where photosynthesis happens. It contains a
pigment called chlorophyll which keeps the plant green and captures light energy.
Vacuole- this is only in plants. It stores food, water, enzyme, and waste.

Energy
Photosynthesis= putting together with light

 This is the process where producers make their own food (glucose). The energy
for this reaction is from the sun.

 Reactants (ingredients) = water, carbon dioxide, and light (remember plants are opposite of us...we breath in oxygen they breath in CO2)

Products (what you get) = glucose and oxygen
 You must know the formula: 6CO2+6H2O YIELD C6+H12+O6+6O2

 Photosynthesis happens in the chloroplast of the cell. Since animals do not have
chloroplasts they cannot perform photosynthesis. The chlorophyll is pigment in
the chloroplast that absorbs the sunlight and makes the plant green.

 The Carbon dioxide enters the leaf and the oxygen leaves the leaf through an
opening called the stomata or stoma. The stomata are surrounded by guard cells.

Glucose

Cellular Respiration – this is how cells break down the glucose made in
photosynthesis to release energy. All living things do respiration all of the time.

 Respiration happens in the mitochondria of the cell. This is why we call the
mitochondria the power house of the cell because it is releasing energy.

 Respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis.

 Reactants (ingredients) = glucose and oxygen. Products (what you get) =water, carbon dioxide and energy (ATP)

 There are two types of respiration-
Aerobic- respiration that uses oxygen
Anaerobic- does not use oxygen (“An” means not)

 Another name for Anaerobic respiration is Fermentation.
There are two types of anaerobic respiration or Fermentation:
Lactic Acid Fermentation- this makes lactic acid. This is the type of
respiration our muscles do when they run out of oxygen. It is why our
muscles get sore. Bacteria also make lactic acid.
Alcohol Fermentation- this is the type of fermentation that is done by yeast.
It makes alcohol and can make it from apple juice.

ATP- is the energy molecule that is made in respiration. It is how our bodies temporarily
store the energy made in respiration. It is a nucleic acid.

 ATP- Adenosine Triphosphate—three phosphates
ADP- Adenosine Diphosphate- two phosphates

 The ATP/ADP cycle happens in the mitochondria with respiration. When energy
needs to be stored a phosphate is added to ADP to make ATP (three phosphates
now). When energy needs to be released the third phosphate is broken off, making
ADP.
ATP/ADP is like using a battery and recharging it and repeating this over and over again.
Transport in a Cell

 The plasma membrane controls what enters and leaves the cell. It maintains a
balance on the outside of the cell and on the inside = homeostasis.

 Another name for the plasma membrane is the Phospholipid bilayer= 2 layers of fat.

 The plasma membrane is semi or selectively permeable. This means it only lets
some things through.

 There are two types of transport= Passive and Active

 Active transport requires energy (ATP). It moves materials from low to
high concentration and requires the help of carrier proteins. It goes
against the concentration gradient. It usually moves big molecules like
carbohydrates.

 Passive transport does not require any energy. Moves small molecules.

It moves with the concentration gradient.

Diffusion is a type of passive transport and move materials from a high to
low concentration.

Facilitated Diffusion uses carrier proteins.

Osmosis- the movement of water from an area of high to low concentration across a membrane.