Ap Psych Unit 1.1

Heredity

-genetic or predisposed characteristics

• characteristics we are born with

Environment

External factors that influence us

Nervous system.

The body's communication network, responsible for transmitting signals and coordinating actions

Central nervous system

Consists of brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

Carries messages between CNS and rest of body, contains autonomic and somatic

Autonomic nervous system.

Controls involuntary bodily functions, consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic

Sympathetic NS

Prepares the body for action, "fight or flight

Parasympathetic NS

Calms body, slows heart rate, promotes digestion, conserves energy

Somatic NS

Controls voluntary movements

Neurons

Responsible for carrying electrical and chemical signals

Glial cells

Provide support by maintaining structure, insulation facilitating communication, and removing waste

Reflex arc

Rapid, automatic responses to stimuli

Sensory neurons

Detect stimui and send signals to spinal cord

Interneurons

Process sensory info and relays it to motor neurons

Motor neurons.

Send signals to muscles to produce a response

Resting potential

A neuron having stable charge

Depolarization

When stimulated a neuron reaches its threshold, causing an electrical signal that travels down the neuron

All or nothing principle

A neuron either fires completely or it doesn't

Refractory period

Brief moment when a neuron cannot fire again immediately after firing

Synapse

Tiny gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released into

Reuptake

Neurotransmitters reabsorbed after firing , or they are broken down

Myelin sheath

Protective covering of neuron -damage to this can cause multiple sclerosis

Excitatory

Neurotransmitters that make a neuron more likely to fire

Inhibitory

Neurotransmitters that make a neuron less likely to fire

Dopamine

Associated with movement, motivation, and the brain's reward system - primarily excitatory

Serotonin

Influences mood, appetite, and sleep -primarily inhibitory

Norepinephrine

Plays a role in alertness and the body's response to stress - excitatory

Glutamate

The brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter, essential fo’r learning and memory

GABA

Main inhibitory neurotransmitter, helping to regulate neural activity and prevent overstimulation

Endorphins

Act as natural painkillers, reducing discomfort and promoting pleasure inhibitory

Substance P

Helps transmit pain signals - excitatory

Acetylcholine

Involved in muscle movement, attention, and memory - excitatory

Hormones

Released into the bloodstream - produces effects that are slower but long-lasting

Adrenaline

Prepares body for action, increases heart rate and energy levels

Leptin

Signals fullness

Ghrelin

Increases appetite

Melatonin

Regulates sleep cycles

Oxytocin

Plays a role in social bonding, trust, and connection

Agonists

Mimic neurotransmitters and enhance neural firing

Antagonists

Block neurotran’smitters and reduce neuron activity

Stimulants

Increase neural activity - heightened alertness and energy - caffeine, cocaine

Depressants

Slow down neuron activity - relaxation and drowsiness - sed,atives, alcohol

Hallucinogens

Distort perception and cognition, altering sensory experiences - weed, LSD

Opioids

Powerful pain relievers, mimic endorphins -heroin

Tolerance

The body requires larger doses to achieve the same effect

Brain stem

Responsible for basic life sustaining functions, includes the medulla

Medulla

Regulates essential processes such as breathing, heart rate, and digestio. n

Reticular activating system

Helps regulate alertness and attention - plays a role in voluntary movement - involved in sleep-wake cycle

Cerebellum

Coordinates movement, maintains balance, supports procedure learning

Cerebral cortex

divided into two hemispheres, contains specialized regions responsible for perception, thought, language, and decision making

Limbic system

Within the cerebral cortex, includes thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, and amygdala

Thalamus

Relay center, directs sensory info to the appropriate areas of the brain

Hypothalamus

Helps regulate homeostasis, including hunger, thirst, and body temperature

Pituitary gland

Controls hormone release, influencing growth and metabolism

Hippocampus

Essential for forming and retrieving memories

Amygdala

Plays a key role in processing fear and aggression

Occipital lobes

Process visual information

Temporal lobes

Involved in auditory processing and language comprehension

Parietal lobes

Contain association areas that organize and and interpret sensory info

Somatosensory cortex

Within parietal lobe, processes touch, temperature and pain

Frontal lobe

Responsible for higher order thinking, decision making, and executive functioning

Prefrontal cortex

Within frontal lobe, plays role in reasoning, impulse control, and personality

Motor cortex

Within frontal lobe, directs voluntary movement by sending signals to muscles

Corpus callosum

Connection to the brains two hemispheres

Left hemisphere

Processes language

Broca’s area

Responsible for speech production

Wernicke‘s area

Responsible for speech comprehension

Aphasia

A condition that affects language ability

Plasticity

Ability of the brain to adapt and reorganize itself

Stage 1 of sleep

Lightest stage of sleep, often accompanied by hypnic jerks

Stage 2 of sleep

Transitional stage where the body prepares for deep sleep

Stage 3 of sleep

Deepest stage of sleep, plays role in physical restoration and immune system function

REM stage

Brain activity resembles wakefulness, temporary muscle paralysis, dreaming occurs

Activation-Synthesis Theory

Dreams result from random neural activity in the brain stem that the brain then interprets as meaningful experiences

Consolidation theory

Dreams help process and store memories, strengthening learning and problem solving skills

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

Causes sudden and uncontrollable sleep episodes during the day

REM Sleep behavior disorder

occurs when the body does not experience normal REM sleep paralysis, allowing individuals to physically act out their dreams

Sleep apnea

involves repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep

Somnambulism

(sleepwalking) occurs when individuals engage in complex behaviors while still asleep, typically during deep NREM sleep

Sensation

the process of detecting information from the environment and converting it to neural signals for processing in the brain

Absolute Threshold

the minimum intensity at which a stimulus can be detected at least half the time

Just Noticeable Difference

the smallest detectable change in stimulus intensity

Weber’s Law

the ability to detect differences depends on the proportion of change rather than a fixed amount (as intensity of stimulus increases, larger change is needed for a person to detect the change)

sensory adaption

body becomes less sensitive to unchanging stimuli over time

sensory interaction

different senses work together to enhance perception and understanding of the environment

retina

located at the back of the eye, contains specialized cells that detect light and convert it into neural signals

lens

accommodation- adjusts focus for near or far objects, towards front of eye

rods

• located in periphery of retina

• detect shapes and movement

• functions effectively in low light conditions

• do not detect color! (black and white)

cone cells

• located in fovea

• process color and fine detail

blind spot

• where optic nerve exits the eye

• brain fills in missing details to create a complete image

trichromatic theory

• explains how colors are detected in retina

• 3 types of cones (sensitive to red, green, and blue wavelengths) help produce the perception of color

opponent process theory

• explains how colors are processed after they leave the retina

• pairs of opposing colors (red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white) are processed together

sound

occurs through the movement of air molecules at different wavelengths (pitch) and amplitude (loudness)

pitch perception

how we interpret wavelengths as sounds

place theory

suggests that different frequencies activate different locations along the cochlea

frequency theory

pitch perception is based on how frequent neurons fire in response to sound waves

volleyball theory

groups of neurons fire in alternating sequences to encode higher frequency sounds

sound localization

detecting differences in how sounds reach each ear

conduction deafness

occurs when sound waves cannot reach cochlea due to problems in the outer or middle ear