Research methods

Define a laboratory experiment

IV is manipulated in a highly controlled environment

Define a field experiment

IV is manipulated in a more everyday setting

Define a natural experiment

Changes in the IV are naturally occurring and not being manipulated by a researcher

Define a quasi-experiment

IV is based off an existing characteristic and not manipulated by a researcher

Define an experiment

An experiment is a study that investigates cause and effect

What are the strengths of a laboratory experiment

• High control over EVs to establish cause and effect

• High internal validity due to control of EVsReplication is possible to establish reliability (giving the same information)

• standardisation

What are some limitations of laboratory experiments

• Lacks external validity due to the unusualness of researchcannot be generalised

• Doesn't represent everyday settings, so has low mundane realism

• This could lead to demand characteristicssocial desirability bias

What are the strengths of Field experiments

• have higher mundane realism than lab experiments as the environment is more natural

• produces behaviour that is more valid and authentic

• high external validity

What are the limitations of Field experiments

• Hard to establish cause and effect between IVs and DVs

• Hard to control EVs - low internal validity

• Cause and effect of IVs and DVs are harder to replicate making them not very reliable

• Participants have no right to withdraw as they're unaware they're being studied which can raise ethical concerns

What are the strengths of natural experimentsdo they have high internal or external validity

• Provide research opportunities that couldn't be undertaken due to ethical concerns

• high external validity (involves real world problems/issues)

What are the limitations of Natural experiments

• Naturally occurring events may only happen rarely - reducing research opportunities

• Participants may not be randomly allocated during - Independent groups design

• Demand characteristics may be an issue if and when research is conducted in a lab

• Risk of EVs - low internal validity

What types of experiment are true experiments

• Field experiments

• Laboratory experiments

What are the strengths of Quasi-experiments

• Carried out in standardised and controlled environments - meaning it can be replicable

• Enables researchers to study independent variables that would be impractical or unethical to investigate in laboratory or field experiments

What are the limitations of Quasi-experiments

• Cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions and there may be confounding variables

• IV isn't deliberately changed by the researcher and therefore we are unable to claim that the IV has caused any observed changes

Outline what a Pilot study is

• A small-scale preliminary study conducted before any large scale quantitive research in order to evaluate the potential for a future full-scale project

• Pilot studies are a fundamental stage of the researcher process as they can help identify design issues

What is a naturalistic observation?

Takes place in the setting or context where the target behaviour may occur

What is a strength of naturalistic observations

• Easier to study behavioural interactions

• High ecological validity

What are some limitations of a naturalistic observation

• All aspects of the experiment are free to vary

• Replication can be difficult

What is a controlled observation

• why is it not an experiment

A researcher controls the variables

no IVs or DVs

What are the strengths of a controlled observation

Control over CVs and EVs

What are the limitations of controlled experiments

Will likely be in an artificial setting

So it will have low ecological validity

What is a covert observation

Participants are being watched without their knowledge or consent

What is a strength of covert observations

Removes demand characteristics

High internal validity

What are the limitations of a covert observation

Without informed consent, Ps have no right to withdraw (can be unethical)

What is an overt observation

Ps know they're being watched and have given consent

What is a strength of an overt observation

More ethically acceptable

What are the limitations of an overt observation

• Ps more vulnerable to demand characteristics, leading to lower internal validity

What is a Participant observation

The researcher becomes a member of the group they're studying

What is a strength of Participant observations

• High external validity

• clearly isn't in an artificial setting

• P's behaviour will be more genuine

• high mundane realism

What is a limitation of Participant observation

Researcher may loose objectivity and adopt the lifestyle of those they're researching ‘going native'

What is a non-participant observation

Researcher remains separate from the group they're studying

What is a strength of a non-participant observation

The ability to maintain an objective psychological distance from the group they're studying

What is a limitation of a non-participant observation

Researcher may be too removed from the group they're studying

What is a true experiment

Where a researcher manipulates the IV

What is inter-observer reliability

Needing more than one person in an observation for it to remain consistent

What is a structured observation

Researchers use various systems to organise the observation, such as behaviour categories and sampling procedures

What are the strengths of structured observations

• what type of data does it produce

• More likely to produce quantitive data making it easier to read and analyse

• Less risk of observer bias

What is a limitation of a structured observation

May lack richness and depth of detail, making it difficult to draw conclusions from data gathered

What is an unstructured observation

Researchers record the behaviour they see

What are the strengths of an unstructured observation

• what type of data does it produce

Produces a great deal of rich qualitative data

What are the limitations of an unstructured observation

• Can be difficult to analyse

• tendency to notice more eye-catching behaviours which may lack relevance

• can be difficult to record everything

• risk of observer bias

Define questionnaire

A set of questions used to asses a person's thoughts and feelings as well as their experiences

What are the strengths and limitations of closed questions

• They produce quantitative data

• This data is easy and simple to analyse

• Data lacks depth and detail

Define an interview

A live encounter where one person asks the participant a list of questions to asses their thoughts/experiences

Outline a structured interview

Pre determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order

Outline an unstructured interview

• There are not set questions but the interview still has a general aim

• The participant is encouraged to expand and elaborate on their answers as much as possible

Define a semi-structured interview

Still contains some set questionsInterviewers are able to ask follow-up questions based on previous answers

What are the strengths of questionnaires

• Cost effective

• They can gather large amounts of data quickly as they can be distributed to a large number of people

• Can be completed without the researcher present - reduces researcher bias

• The data is usually straightforward to analyse

What are limitations of questionnaires

• Ps may be vulnerable to demand characteristics and social desirability bias

• May produce a response bias (tendency to answer questions in a similar way)

  • acquiescence bias is the tendency to agree with questions

What are the strengths and weaknesses of structured interviews

• Straightforward to replicate due to standardised format

• Although it prevents topic deviation and unexpected information, it will lack richness and depth of detail in terms of data and conclusions that can be drawn about the participant

Define correlation

A technique to investigate an association between co-variables

Define co-variables

The variables investigated within a correlation and show an association

Define zero correlation

When there is no relationship between the co-variables

How are correlations plotted

Scattergraphs

What is the difference between experiments and correlations

Experiments

• The researcher controls or manipulates the IV to measure the effect this has on the DV

• As a result, it's possible to infer that this deliberate change in variables, it's possible to infer that the IV caused any observed changes in the DV

Correlations

• No manipulation of one variable, no cause and effect can be established

• Investigating a relationship between two covariables

What are strengths of correlations

• Provide a precise and quantifiable measure of how two variables are related this can suggest possible future research if variables are strongly related or demonstrate an interesting pattern

• Quick and economical to conduct

• No need for a controlled environment or manipulation of variables

• Secondary data can be used

What are limitations of correlations

• They can only tell us how variables are related and not why due to lack of experimental manipulation

• Correlations don't establish cause and effect meaning we don't know what co-variable is causing the other to change (direction of effect)

• Correlations can easily be misinterpreted and misused

What is an Intervening variable, and bow does it negatively impact correlations

An untested variable that that causes the relationship between the co-variables of interest

What is the Yerkes-Dodson law of arousal?

Performance is at its best when there is a moderate (optimum) level of arousal and will deteriorate if the arousal is too low or too high

Performance is at its best when there is a moderate (optimum) level of arousal and will deteriorate if the arousal is too low or too high

What is the Yerkes-Dodson law of arousal?