AP Psychology: Unit 5 (Learning)

ch. 6 of Myers' Psychology for AP, pp. 215-249 + in-class notes

learning

relatively permanent change in an organism’s behaviour due to experience

associative learning

the process of learning that events can occur together; in classical conditioning, the events may be two stimuli; in operant conditioning, the events are a response to a stimulus and its consequences

habituation

decreasing response with repeated exposure to it

classical conditioning

learning to associate two stimuli and creates anticipation; neutral stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus produces a response to the neutral stimulus

operant conditioning

learning to associate a response to a stimulus and a consequence; strengthens behaviour with a good consequence (reinforcer) and diminishes behaviour with a bad consequence (punisher)

observational learning

learning from others’ experiences

behaviourism

view that psychology should be (1) an objective science that (2) studies behaviour without reference to mental processes; (1) is agreed upon but not (2); influenced by Ivan Pavlov

neutral stimulus

prior to conditioning, a stimulus that produces no response other than catching attention

unconditioned response

the unlearned, naturally occuring response to an unconditioned stimulus

unconditioned stimulus

stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response

conditioned response

learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned, stimulus

conditioned stimulus

an originally irrelevant stimulus that now has a learned, conditioned response after association with an unconditioned stimulus

Pavlov’s dog

dog owned by Ivan Pavlov that was classically conditioned and began to associate the ringing of a bell with incoming food; would salivate just at the tone of the bell without the food being presented

acquisition

initial stage of classical conditioning that creates the link between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus triggers the conditioned response

higher-order conditioning

also called second-order conditioning; procedure in which the conditioned stimulus is paired with another, neutral stimulus to create a weaker association and a new conditioned stimulus

extinction

over time, a diminishing response to a conditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

reappearance, after a pause, of a previously extinguished conditioned response

generalisation

tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to it to elicit a similar response

discrimination

ability to distinguish between conditioned stimuli and garbage stimuli

learned helplessness

helpless, passive resignation learned when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

taste aversion

learned response after eating spoiled or toxic food; avoidance of food that makes you ill

respondent behaviour

automatic response to a stimulus

law of effect

principal that rewarded behaviour becomes more likely and punished behaviour becomes less likely

operant chamber

also called a skinner box; chamber that has a manipulatable object that an organism can use to obtain a reinforcer like food

shaping

technique in which reinforcers guide behaviour towards desired outcome

successive approximation

rewarding behaviour as it gets closer and closer to desired behaviour

discriminative stimulus

a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement

reinforcer

any event that strengthens the behaviour it follows

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviours by presenting positive stimuli; a stimulus that, when presented after a behaviour, strengthens the behaviour

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviours by removing negative stimuli; a stimulus that, when removed, strengthens the behaviour; is not punishment

primary reinforcer

innately reinforcing stimulus, like one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcer

also called a secondary reinforcer; stimulus that gains power through association with a primary reinforcer

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs; most rapid learning, but also has rapid extinction

partial reinforcement schedule

also called an intermittent reinforcement schedule; reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition but a greater resistance to extinction

fixed-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after a specified number of responses; causes fast responding as the organism knows what to do to get rewarded

variable-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses; causes fast responding since the organism doesn’t know when the reward will come; extremely resistant to extinction

fixed-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time period has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable time period has elapsed

punishment

an event that suppresses the behaviour it follows

positive punishment

adding a negative stimulus to decrease behaviour

negative punishment

removal of a desirable stimulus to decrease behaviour

cognitive map

a mental representation of an environment

latent learning

learnign that occurs but is not apparent without an incentive to demonstrate it

insight

a sudden and often novel realisation of a solution

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behaviour effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behaviour to receive promised rewards or avoid punishment

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another do so; mirroring of another’s actions can enable imitation and empathy

prosocial behaviour

positive, constructive, helpful behaviour

antisocial behaviour

disruptive acts characterised by hostility and aggression towards others

instinctive drift

tendency to move towards biologically predisposed behaviours

aversive conditioning

technique used to reduce appeal of behaviours that one wants to eliminate by associating them with some sort of discomfort

immediate reinforcer

reinforcer that occurs immediately after a behaviour

delayed reinforcer

a reinforcer that occurs after some time has passed

token economy

when a desired behaviour is performed, a reward or token is given in order to reinforce the desired behaviour

overjustification effect

when expected external incentive decreases intrinsic motivation to perform a task

premack principle

performing less desirable activities to reward self with more desirable ones