Adolescent Psychology Final

Cultural Approach to adolescence

adolescence is a cultural construction (not the same in every country at a certain time)

how do cultures differ for adolescence

what adolescents are allowed to do
what they are required to do
what they are taught to believe
patterns of daily life

adolescence is

the period after puberty begins and before adult roles are taken on
a fairly new term coming into common usage in the early 20th century

adolescence in Ancient Greece

Plato and Aristotle: adolescence is the stage of life in which the capacity for reason develops (ages 14 to 21)

Adolescence from 1500-1890

life-cycle service: move into the home of a "master"

the age of adolescence 1890-1920

important changes that established the characteristics of modern adolescence

modern adolescence

1. laws restricting child labor
2. requirements for children to attend primary AND secondary school
3. the field of adolescence as an area of scholarly study

G Stanley Hall

-father of the scientific study of adolescence
wrote the first textbook on adolescence (1904)
-reported that adolescents experience a great deal of storm and stress as a standard part of their development
-the claim that this is characteristic of all adolescents and that the source of it is purely biological is clearly false

storm and stress

conflict with parents; mood disruptions; risk behavior

Adolescence from Hall's time to our time

1900: 14-24 years
2017: 10-18 years
-initial age of menarche has declined
- first signs of puberty begin about two years prior to menarche
- today most adolescents attend secondary school, which ends by age 18 (not a significant age of transition for Hall)

Emerging Adulthood (18-25)

5 Distinguishing characteristics:
1. identity explorations
2. instability
3. self-focus
4. feeling in-between
5. possibilities
*emerging adulthood does not exist in all cultures (only in cultures where people are allowed to postpone entering adult roles (e.g. marriage, parenting) until at least their mid-20s

The transition to Adulthood

-accepting responsibility for oneself
- making independent decisions
- becoming financially independent
*characterized by individualism (separating from parents)

transition to adulthood in more collectivist cultures

-marriage
-being able to support a family
- being able to support their parents financially

Scientific Study of Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood

-developmental changes are a result of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes
- biological: physical changes within an individual's body
- cognitive: changes in thinking and intelligence
- socioemotional: changes in relationships, emotions, personality, and social construct

5 Basic steps of the scientific method

1. identify a question of scientific interest
2. form a hypothesis
3. choose a research method and research design
4. collect data
a. the sample should be representative of the population of interest
5. draw conclusions

APA's ethical guidelines

-protection for physical and psychological harm
- informed consent
- confidentiality
- deception and debriefing

research methods- questionnaires

closed-question format; open-ended questions; can analyze large number of people quickly + inexpensive

reliability of research methods

does the measure yield consistent results?

validity of research methods

does it measure what it claims to measure?

research methods- interviews

qualitative data; more complex, personal; coding interview data takes time, effort and money

research methods- observations

observe and record behavior; cannot say anything about cause/effect; nature environment or laboratory setting

research methods- ethnographic

research living among people they wish to study

research methods- case study

1 or a few people in depth; results may not generalize

research methods- biological measurements

hormonal functioning, brain functioning, genetics

research methods- correlational research

describes the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics; correlation coefficient (+1.00 to -1.00)

research methods- experimental research

-can reveal cause and effect because variables are manipulated in a controlled way
-variables:
a. independent variable: the factor that is manipulated; the cause
b. dependent variable: the outcome that is measured (a behavior or mental process that may change in response to the IV)
-random assignment to either group
a. experimental group: receives the treatment/ the IV
b. control group: does not receive the treatment

research methods- natural experiments

twin studies; adoption studies -> examine the relative contributions of genes and environment

research design- cross-sectional research

all data collected at one time; quick & inexpensive; no information about individual development, change, stability

research design- longitudinal research

studying the same individuals over a period of time; can analyze stability and change in development (behavior, emotions, etc.) and how early experiences affect later experience; higher cost; drop out effects

cognitive development

changes in how people think, how they solve problems, and how their capacities or memory and attention change

Jean Piaget's Cognitive-Development Theory

-cognition changes with age: kids of the same age have the same abilities and missed the same questions
-changes in cognitive development proceed in distinct stages (i.e., cognitive development is discontinuous)
-the driving force behind development is maturation: genetically based development
-the active construction of reality takes place through the use of schemes ( a mental framework useful for organizing and interpreting informations)

Piagetian Schemes

-schemes (go two ways: assimilation and accommodation):
a. assimilation: occurs when new information is altered to fit an existing scheme
b. accommodation: entails changing the scheme to adapt to the new information
ex. a scientist conducts research to gather new information for her existing theory (assimilation); if new information doesn't fit she may have to make modification or change the theory completely (accommodation)

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

has 4 stages:
1. sensorimotor
2. pre operational
3. concrete operations
4. Formal operations

sensorimotor

(0-2) learn to coordinate activities of the sense with motor activities

pre-operational

(2-7): capable of representing the world symbolically (e.g. language); egocentric (only able to see the world from your perspective)

Concrete operations

(7-11): better at using mental operations; can reason logically about concrete events; understand conservation; difficulty thinking hypothetically

Formal operations

(11-15/20): can reason about problems involving multiple variables; can think logically and abstractly; can apply the scientific method to cognitive tasks

conservation

understanding conservation of liquid/ things being hidden

formal operations (pendulum example)

what determines the speed at which that pendulum sways from side to side?
- hypothetical-deductive reasoning: the ability to systematically test possible solutions to a problem and arrive at an answer that can be defended and explained

thinking is

a. abstract
b. complex
c. Metacognition

abstract thinking

reason about concepts that cannot be experienced directly; justice, freedom, good, evil, politics, religion

complex thinking

can perceive multiple aspects of a situation or idea; can understand metaphors, sarcasm

metacognition

(thinking about thinking); can monitor and reason about their thinking processes- learn and solve problems more efficiently

limitations of Piaget's Theory

-critiques of the formal operations stage
-individual diferences
-cultural differences

Critiques of the formal operations stage (limitations of Piaget's theory)

maturational development driven by biology -> but all humans do not go through the same stages at the same ages

individual differences (limitations of Piaget's theory)

a great deal of variability among individuals in formal operational thinking; schooling; even if capable, formal operational thinking is selective or is not needed

cultural differences (limitations of Piaget's theory)

what are the cognition requirements in a particular culture?

cognitive development in emerging adulthood

-formal operations... the last stage?
- you can learn more, but that's just adding on knowledge it's not a different type of thinking (according to piaget)

postformal thinking

-pragmatism: incorporations of practical limitations to logical thinking; dialectical thought- most problems do not have a single solution
- reflective judgment: move away from dualistic thinking (seeing the world in polarized terms)

information-processing approach

(completely different from Piaget)
-computer as a model of human thinking
- cognitive development is gradual (continuous)
-explains how the mind manages information/ steps in the thinking process, especially attention and memory

the components of information processing

-attention
-short-term and long-term memory
- processing speed, automaticity, and executive functioning

attention

focusing of mental effort; most information that enters the senses is processed no further
- selective attention: focusing only on what is relevant; ignoring the irrelevant stimuli
-divided attention: trying to focus on a bunch of different things
*if the task at hand is at all complex or challenging, multitasking considerably reduces attention to the key task

memory

in order to learn and reason, you need to retain information in memory and retrieve it when necessary;
-short term memory
-long term memory
-working memory
with age, capacity increases as well as the knowledge base (the more you know, the easier it is to learn new information)

short term memory

not going to stick if you don't keep focusing on it

long term memory

keep processing it in order for it to move to long term; capacity is limitless

working memory

(better term for short term memory) where information is stored as it is comprehended and analyzed:
-active processing of incoming information; and of information retrieved from long-term memory
-size of working memory highly correlated with overall intelligence

processing speed

how quickly you can think; gets better with age

automaticity

being able to do things automatically; the more automatic a task is, the faster you can do it and the less working memory capacity it takes, leaving room for other tasks

executive functioning

ability to combine cognitive abilities such as attention, memory, planning, and reasoning into coherent thoughts and actions

limitations of the information-processing approach

not a developmental theory; not a holistic perspective; computers are not self-reflective; computers lack emotions

Critical thinking

can adolescents be critical thinkers?
-wider range of knowledge across a variety of domains (Can compare new knowledge with old)
-can combine different kinds of knowledge simultaneously
-metacognitive strategies
-does not develop automatically or inevitably

critical thinking & decision making

decision making process:
-possible choices
-consequences of each choice
- desirability and likelihood of each consequence
-integrating all information to make a decision
- with age, better at identifying more choices, anticipating consequences, evaluating information
- why do adolescents take more risks than adults?
more likely to be affected by psychosocial factors: emotions of the moment; desire to be accepted by peers

social cognition

then way we think about other people, social relationships, and social institutitons

2 aspects of social cognition

1. perspective taking
2. adolescent egocentrism

perspective taking

ability to understand thoughts/ feelings of others:
-improves with age, however only a loose connection between age and perspective taking abilities
- related to popularity among peers, success at making friends
-predict sympathy and prosocial behavior

theory of mind

the ability to attribute mental states to self and others

adolescent egocentrism

metacognition: can think about own thoughts and others' thoughts
imaginary audience: believe that everyone is always paying attention to everything you do
personal fable: a belief in your uniqueness (I am totally unique from everyone else and no one can understand what I am feeling); risky behavior + optimistic bias

the psychometric approach

evaluating cognitive abilities with intelligence tests; it si the domain of intelligence that most attention has been directed to individual differences
- intelligence tests:
Then Wechsler Scales are widely used intelligence tests- WAIS, WISC
age norms; 11 subtests to provide overall IQ, verbal IQ, and performance IQ

cultural beliefs

the normal and moral standards of a culture:
-what is morally right/wrong?
-which behaviors should be rewarded/punished?
-what is most important in life?
-belief about roles--gender roles, age related roles, roles related to social status

symbolic inheritance

a set of ideas (implicit and explicit) about persons, society, nature, and divinity

why do adolescents become increasingly aware of their cultural roles and what is expected of them?

-increasing cognitive capacities in adolescence (i.e., abstract thinking and self-reflection)
-the transition to adulthood is approaching along with the need to adapt to adult role requirementts

socialization

the process by which people acquire the behaviors and beliefs of their culture

socialization outcomes

-self regulation
-role preparation
-cultivation for sources of meaning

self regulation

restrain impulses and comply with social norms

role preparation

for roles in work, gender, and institutions such as marriage/ parenthood

cultivation of sources of meaning

"what is to be valued?" "what is to be lived for?"

cultural values

-individualism
-collectivism

individualism

independence + self-expression; individual freedoms; individual achievements; "western"; independent self

collectivism

obedience, conformity; harmonious social relations; cooperation, contributions to group; "eastern"; interdependent self

what to keep in mind about cultural values:

cultures' belief systems are not "pure types"; there are individual differences in culture; diversity also exists within individuals

broad socialization

(individualism): encourage individual uniqueness; more creativity & innovation; more loneliness, social problems, depression, disorder

narrow socialization

(collectivism): value obedience and conformity; collective identity, greater social order; greater suppression of individual uniqueness

sources of socialization

peers/friends, school, community, workplace, legal system, media, family, cultural belief system; influence of family diminishes in adolescence; influence of friends, media, school, and legal system increase

"middletown"

participants asked--what are the 3 most important values for your children to learn?

the custom complex

a typical practice in a culture AND the cultural beliefs the provide the basis for that practice
-example: dating
- is dating ontogenetic? (i.e., driven by innate processes) --> is it "natural" for adolescents to start dating when they reach a certain age?
-what cultural beliefs underlie the practice of dating?

cultural beliefs in multicultural societies

-research has shown that cultural beliefs of American minority cultures tend to be less individualistic and more collectivistic than the beliefs of the American majority culture
-what happens when the socialization young people experience is not consistent across sources?

Chinese adolescents in Australia and the US

-Feldman's 1992 study of Chinese adolescents whose families had immigrated to Australia or the US (compared to Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong)
--the longer time in USA or Australia, the less the family is valued as the residential unit
--also differences in--how much value placed on tradition, how much value placed on outward success

religious belies are cultural beliefs

-virtually all cultures have religious beliefs of some kind
-prescriptions for socialization- roles, self-regulation, sources of meaning
-individuals in developing countries/ traditional cultures tend to be more religious
-still, religion often a lower priority compared to friendships, school, media, work

religious beliefs in adolescents

-American adolescents don't tend to follow traditional doctrines; more likely to see religion as the way to be a good person and be happy
-religious faith and religious practices tend to be stronger among african americans than among whites
-more religious adolescents -> less depression, lower rates of premarital sex, drug use, and delinquent behavior
- religious participation and religious beliefs are lower in the late teens/ early 20s than at any other period of life

religious beliefs in emerging adults

-manu emerging adults adopt a buffet approach to their religious beliefs
-what's important is the belief in God and the encouragement to be a good person
- religious beliefs and participation among emerging adults related to: higher well-being, lower rates of risk and behavior
-younger people are less religious than older people, and religiosity has declined with each successive generation

religious/ moral thinking

dependent on a culture's beliefs OR cognitive development

Kohlberg's theory of moral development

*moral development is rooted in universal cognitive processes
-hypothetical moral dilemmas
-3 levels (with 2 stages each) or moral development
-Level 1: Preconventional reasoning
-Level 2: conventional reasoning
-Level 3: Postconventional reasoning

Kohlberg- Level 1

Pre conventional reasoning
stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation
stage 2: individualism and purpose orientation
**controlled by external rewards and punishment

Kohlberg- Level 2

Conventional reasoning
stage 3: interpersonal concordance orientation- using your parents moral standards
stage 4: social systems orientation - follow the law
**individuals abide by certain standards (internal), but they are the standards of others (external)

Kohlberg- Level 3

Post conventional Reasoning
stage 5: community rights and individuals rights orientation
stage 6: universal ethical principles orientation
**most adolescents reason at age 3
- by early adulthood a small number of individual's reason in post conventional ways
-postconventional thinking even rarer in non-western cultures
-moral development proceeds in the predicted way; no skipping stages or going back
- moral development correlated with SES, intelligence, and educational level

a cultural critique of Kohlberg

-biased in favor of individualistic thinking? -> detached, abstract individualism is highest form of moral reasoning
-Kohlberg: cognitive development is the bases of moral development; progress along the one "right" path; become more and more rational and objective
-postconventional thinking supposed to rely on objective, universal moral principles regardless of the perspectives of either individuals or groups

worldview approach (Lene Jensen)

- 3 "ethics" based on different worldview:
1. ethic of autonomy- individual is primary moral authority having right to do as they wish as long as their behavior does no harm to others
2. ethic of community- responsibilities of roles in family and community are basis for moral judgement
3. ethic of divinity- individual is a spiritual entity subject to the prescriptions of a divine authority

Political beliefs

Joseph Adelson: cognitive changes in political beliefs with age:
-used hypothetical situations, studied adolescents age 11-18
-3 key changes in adolescents' thinking (shifts between ages 12/13 to 15/16)
1. change in cognitive mode- related to formal operations
- sharp decline in support for authoritarian political systems
-the capacity to develop an ideology
2. political thinking becomes increasingly abstract and complex during adolescence
3. tolerance of opposing views tends to increase

Family Systems Approach

-each subsystem influences every other subsystem in the family
-a change in any family member or subsystem results in a period of disequilibrium until the family adjusts to the change
- 3 aspects of the family system

3 aspects of the family system

1. parents' development during midlife
2. sibling relationships
3. extending family relationships