Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior (1A,1B,2)

Behavior approach

an approach to psychology emphasizing that human behavior is determined mainly by what a person has learned, especially from rewards and punishments

Scientist: Watson

Biological approach

an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system

Cognitive approach

an approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems

Dualism

the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact

Eclectic approach

an approach to psychotherapy that uses techniques from various forms of therapy

Empiricism

the belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation

Evolutionary approach

an approach to psychology centered on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors

Scientist: David Buss

Functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Humanistic approach

an approach to psychology emphasizing a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny

Scientist: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

Multicultural approach/sociocultural approach

therapy that relies on awareness, knowledge, and skills of the client's sociocultural context

Psychodynamic approach

an approach to psychology emphasizing unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives (such as the drive for sex) and society's demands, and early childhood family experiences

Scientist: Sigmund Freud

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

Operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

Correlational study

a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other

Survey

the collection of data by having people answer a series of questions

Interview

A face-to-face or telephone questioning of a respondent to obtain desired information.

Naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Participant observation

a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities

Structured observation

a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each child and recording the child's behavior

Case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

Cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

Single subject design (aka independent subject)

a research design that requires only one or a few subjects in order to conduct an entire experiment

Mean, median, mode, range

mean: average

median: middle number (ordered)

mode: most common

range: biggest - smallest

Positive correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.

Negative correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases

Normal distribution

A function that represents the distribution of variables as a symmetrical bell-shaped graph.

Skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

Positively skewed distribution

A distribution where the scores pile up on the left side and taper off to the right.

Negatively skewed distribution

A distribution in which most scores pile up at the high end of the scale.

Statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

smaller p value = statistical significance

Standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Matched pairs design

A method of assigning subjects to groups in which pairs of subjects are first matched on some characteristic and then individually assigned randomly to groups.

Repeated measures (within-subjects design)

the same individuals will participate in all conditions

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Convenience sampling

choosing individuals who are easiest to reach

Representative sample

randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Single-blind technique

When information about the study is withheld from the participants

Double-blind technique

An experimental control in which neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with the participants are aware of the group or condition to which the participants have been assigned.

Reliability

consistency of measurement

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Confounding variables

factors that cause differences between the experimental group and the control group other than the independent variable

Inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

Frequency distribution

an arrangement of data that indicates how often a particular score or observation occurs

Ethical guidelines

- informed consent

- participant's right to withdraw

- justification for the use of deception

- confidentiality of findings

- debriefing procedure

Falsifiability

Can the claim be disproved?

Extraneous variables

any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Afferent neuron

Neuron that conducts impulses toward the CNS from the body periphery.

Efferent neuron

Neuron that conducts impulses away from the CNS to muscles and glands.

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Soma

cell body

Myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

Nodes of Ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Synaptic cleft

The narrow gap that separates the presynaptic neuron from the postsynaptic cell.

Resting potential

The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.

Action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Absolute refractory period

The minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin.

Post synaptic potential

a voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

Endorphin

chemical in the brain that plays a specialized role in pain reduction

GABA

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter; reduces anxiety

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

Neuromodulators

chemicals released in the nervous system that influence the sensitivity of the receiving neuron to neurotransmitters

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

Agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

Antagonist

a chemical or drug that binds to receptors in the brain and prevents an agonist from having a reaction

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

a device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp

Lesioning

destroying a piece of the brain

Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB)

sending a weak electric current into a brain structure to stimulate it

Computerized Tomography (CT)

the use of a device that employs a computer to analyze data obtained by a scanning beam of X-rays to produce a two-dimensional picture of a "slice" through the body

Positron Emissions Tomography (PET)

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

an imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain by measuring changes in the blood's oxygen levels

Central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

Sympathetic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

Parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Cerebrum

Area of the brain responsible for all voluntary activities of the body

Cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Substantia Nigra

An area of the midbrain that is involved in motor control and contains a large concentration of dopamine-producing neurons

Amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.