Unit 2: personality

Who first proposed the social-cognitive perspective on personality?

Albert Bandura

What does the social-cognitive perspective view personality as?

The product of the interaction between a person's traits and the social world around them.

How does the behavioral approach contribute to understanding personality development?

It shows that personality development is affected by learned responses.

What do social-cognitive researchers apply to the study of personality?

Principles of learning, cognition, and social behavior.

What is reciprocal determinism?

The interaction and mutual influence of behavior, internal personal factors, and environmental factors.

In assessment situations, what principle is exploited to predict future behavior?

The best predictor of future behavior is a person's behavior patterns in similar situations.

What do social-cognitive theories of personality build upon?

Well-established concepts of learning and cognition.

What criticism do social-cognitive theorists face regarding their approach to personality?

They are faulted for underemphasizing the importance of unconscious motives, emotions, and biologically influenced traits.

What is the center of personality that organizes our thoughts, feelings, and actions?

The self

How can considering possible selves motivate us?

It helps motivate us toward positive development.

What psychological phenomenon occurs when we focus too intensely on ourselves?

The spotlight effect

What are the dangers of unrealistically high self-esteem?

It is linked to aggressive behavior and is fragile.

What is self-efficacy?

Our sense of competence.

What is a better approach than promoting unrealistically high self-worth in children?

Rewarding their achievements to foster feelings of competence.

What can excessive optimism lead to?

Complacency and blindness to real risks.

What is self-serving bias?

The tendency to perceive ourselves favorably, such as viewing ourselves as better than average.

What is narcissism?

Excessive self-love and self-absorption.

What characterizes defensive self-esteem?

It is fragile, focuses on sustaining itself, and views failure or criticism as a threat.

What is secure self-esteem?

A sturdy form of self-esteem that allows us to feel accepted for who we are.

What do cultures based on self-reliant individualism value?

Personal independence and individual achievement.

How do collectivist cultures define identity?

In terms of interdependence, tradition, and harmony.

What is a key difference between individualism and collectivism in terms of identity?

Individualism emphasizes personal goals and self-esteem, while collectivism emphasizes group goals and social identity.

What do trait theorists believe about personality?

Personality is a stable and enduring pattern of behavior.

What method do trait theorists use to identify clusters of behavior tendencies?

Factor analysis.

How do genetic predispositions affect personality traits?

Genetic predispositions influence many traits.

What is the difference between introversion and shyness?

Introversion does not equal shyness; introverts have different skills and can achieve great success.

What are personality inventories?

Questionnaires designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors.

How are test items in personality inventories derived?

Test items are empirically derived and the tests are objectively scored.

What is a limitation of personality inventories?

People can fake their answers to create a good impression, which affects validity.

What are the Big Five personality factors?

Conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion (CANOE).

How stable are the Big Five personality factors across cultures?

They are stable and appear to be found in all cultures.

What is the heritability percentage for personality traits?

Heritability generally runs about 40 percent for each dimension.

How do average traits behave over time and across situations?

Average traits persist over time and are predictable across many different situations.

Can traits predict behavior in specific situations?

Traits cannot predict behavior in any one particular situation.

What skills do introverts possess compared to extraverts?

Introverts have different, equally important skills and can be successful leaders.

What is the significance of extraversion in Western cultures?

Western cultures prize extraversion, but introverts can also experience great achievement.

What is the focus of humanistic psychology regarding personality?

The potential for healthy personal growth and people's striving for self-determination and self-realization.

Who proposed the hierarchy of needs in human motivation?

Abraham Maslow.

What are the two highest levels in Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

Self-actualization and self-transcendence.

What are the key ingredients of a growth-promoting environment according to Carl Rogers?

Acceptance (including unconditional positive regard), genuineness, and empathy.

What central feature of personality did both Maslow and Rogers emphasize?

Self-concept.

What methods did some humanistic psychologists reject in favor of more personal approaches?

Standardized assessments; they relied on interviews and conversations.

How did Carl Rogers assess progress during therapy?

By using questionnaires where clients described their ideal and actual selves.

What impact did humanistic psychology have on modern psychology?

It helped renew interest in the concept of self and laid the groundwork for positive psychology.

What criticisms have been made against humanistic psychology?

Its concepts were considered vague and subjective, its values self-centered, and its assumptions naively optimistic.

What is the focus of humanistic psychology regarding personality?

The potential for healthy personal growth and people's striving for self-determination and self-realization.

Who proposed the hierarchy of needs in human motivation?

Abraham Maslow.

What are the two highest levels in Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

Self-actualization and self-transcendence.

What are the key ingredients of a growth-promoting environment according to Carl Rogers?

Acceptance (including unconditional positive regard), genuineness, and empathy.

What central feature of personality did both Maslow and Rogers emphasize?

Self-concept.

What methods did some humanistic psychologists reject in favor of more personal approaches?

Standardized assessments; they relied on interviews and conversations.

How did Carl Rogers assess progress during therapy?

By using questionnaires where clients described their ideal and actual selves.

What impact did humanistic psychology have on modern psychology?

It helped renew interest in the concept of self and laid the groundwork for positive psychology.

What criticisms have been made against humanistic psychology?

Its concepts were considered vague and subjective, its values self-centered, and its assumptions naively optimistic.

What is personality defined as?

An individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Which two theories laid the foundation for later personality theories?

Psychoanalytic (psychodynamic) theory and humanistic theory.

What perspective do psychodynamic theories take on personality?

They view personality as a dynamic interaction between the conscious and unconscious mind.

Who originated the theory of psychoanalysis?

Sigmund Freud.

What methods did Freud use to explore the unconscious mind?

Free association and dream analysis.

What are the three systems of the mind according to Freud?

The id (pleasure-seeking impulses), ego (reality-oriented executive), and superego (internalized ideals or conscience).

How many psychosexual stages did Freud propose children pass through?

Five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

What happens if conflicts are unresolved at any psychosexual stage?

A person's pleasure-seeking impulses can become fixated at that stage.

What causes anxiety according to Freud?

Tensions between the demands of the id and superego.

What is repression in Freud's theory?

An unconscious defense mechanism that is the basic mechanism underlying all others.

What did neo-Freudians emphasize differently from Freud?

They placed more emphasis on the conscious mind and social motives rather than sexual or aggressive motives.

What concept did Carl Jung introduce?

The collective unconscious.

What do contemporary psychodynamic theorists believe about childhood experiences?

They influence adult personality and attachment patterns.

What are projective tests used for in psychology?

To assess personality by showing ambiguous stimuli that reveal unconscious motives.

Name two projective tests mentioned in the notes.

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and the Rorschach inkblot test.

What is a strength of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?

It provides a valid and reliable roadmap of people's implicit motives.

What is a limitation of the Rorschach inkblot test?

It has low reliability and validity.

What contributions did Freud make to psychology?

He drew attention to the unconscious, anxiety coping mechanisms, and the conflict between biological impulses and social restraints.

What criticisms exist regarding Freud's concept of repression?

It has not survived scientific scrutiny and is hard to test scientifically.

What does modern science say about the unconscious mind?

It views the unconscious as a separate and parallel track of information processing that occurs outside our awareness.

What types of processing occur in the unconscious according to modern research?

Schemas, priming, implicit memories, instantly activated emotions, and stereotypes.