Unit 3: Developmental Psychology

Developmental Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

Zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.

Embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

Fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions.

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Assimilation

interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas.

Accommodation

Development - adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

Object Permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

Preoperational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

Conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.

Theory of Mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

Concrete Operational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

Formal Operational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

Autism

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind.

Stranger Anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

Attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

Critical Period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development.

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life.

Temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Basic Trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

Self-Concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

Gender

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female.

Aggression

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.

X Chromosome

the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two of these; males have one. One chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Y Chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

Testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional levels in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

Role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

Gender Role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females.

Gender Identity

our sense of being male or female.

Gender Typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

Social Learning Theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

Adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

Primary Sex Characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

Menarche

the first menstrual period.

Identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

Social Identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships.

Intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.

Emerging Adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood.

Menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

Cross-Sectional Study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.

Longitudinal Study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.

Crystallized Intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

Fluid Intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.

Social Clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

Ivan Pavlov

Contribution: developed the theory of "classical conditioning" while working with dogs

Significance: Father of Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

Learning that takes place when two or more stimuli are paired together

UCS = UCR; NS + UCS = UCR; & CS = CR

Unconditioned Stimulus

Part of Classical Conditioning

It is the stimulus that triggers a natural reflexive response.

Pavlov's Dogs: "Meat"

Little Albert: "Loud noise"

Conditioned Stimulus

Part of Classical Conditioning

It initially has no effect but after conditioning, it triggers a natural reflexive response.

Pavlov's Dogs: It was the "Bell"

Little Albert: "White Mouse"

Extinction

Classical Conditioning: The disappearance of a behavior because CS no longer paired with the UCS

Operant Conditioning: The disappearance of a behavior because it is no longer reinforced or punished

Spontaneous Recovery

Classical Conditioning: When a previous CR returns after it has been extinguished

Operant Conditioning: Occurs when a response begins again after extinction

Stimulus Generalization

Classical Conditioning: When the NS and the CS are different. (Example: Little Albert being afraid of any thing that is white and furry)

Operant Conditioning: When a reinforced/punished behavior occurs in a setting/situation where it was NOT learned (Example: Not cursing at home or at school)

Stimulus Discrimination

Classical Conditioning: When the NS and the CS are the same (Example: Little Albert being afraid of a white mouse)

Operant Conditioning: When a reinforced/punished behavior occurs in a setting/situation where it was learned (Example: Cursing only at home because it is acceptable but not at school)

Higher Order Conditioning

When the first CS is paired with a second CS

The second CS is presented briefly before the first CS

Taste Aversions

Psychologist: Garcia

Defined: If you ingest an unusual food or drink and then become nauseous, you will probably develop an aversion to the food or drink.

Significance: Violates the acquisition principles of classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Defined: Learning is based on the association of one's behavior and its consequences. Consequences are reinforced or punished

Example: You choose to break curfew based on the consequences

Law of Effect

Psychologist: Edward Thorndike

Defined: if a behavior results in a satisfying consequence, it will likely be repeated whereas; if a behavior results in a unsatisfying consequence, it will NOT likely be repeated

Example: If you complement your mother and she lets you stay out past curfew, you will complement her again

B.F. Skinner

Contributions: Invented the Operant chamber, aka his ________ box, to use in his research of animal learning.

Significance: Father & Developer of Operant Conditioing

Positive Reinforcement

Part of Operant Conditioning

Adding something to increase the likelihood of a behavior occuring again

Example: Receiving $5 for every "A" in high school

Negative Reinforcement

Part of Operant Conditioning

Increasing the likelihood of a behavior occurring again by removing a negative stimuli

Example: Taking aspirin to relieve a headache

Positive Punishment

Part of Operant Conditioning

Adding something to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again

Example: Spanking and yelling

Negative Punishment

Part of Operant Conditioning

Removing something to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again

Example: Grounding

Shaping

Part of Operant Conditioning

Positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desird behavior to teach a new behavior

Primary Reinforcers

Reinforcers that are rewarding such as food, water, rest, whose natural properties are reinforcing.