QIAN, "Securitising History: Reimagining and Reshaping the 'Imagined Community' in China's New Era"

Why does Qian describe the “Chinese nation” as imagined?

Because there is no objective way to be “Chinese”

membership in the nation is socially constructed and depends on who defines it.

What key question does Qian raise about the Qing Dynasty?

He asks why the Qing is considered a Chinese dynasty and what its identity reveals about modern China.

When did the Qing Dynasty rule China?

From 1644 to 1912

Why were some scholars in China upset by the 2023 British Museum exhibit on the Qing?

Because it portrayed the Qing as a multinational empire under Manchu rule rather than a unambiguously Chinese dynasty

What is the New Qing History (NQH) school?

A group of mainly Western scholars questioning the Chineseness of the Qing

Why does NQH question the Chineseness of the Qing?

Because the Manchu rulers retained Inner Asian characteristics

Why is calling the Qing a “dynasty” historically debated?

“Dynasty” implies continuity of Chinese identity

Why are NQH views politically threatening in China?

Because they challenge the official narrative that modern China has the historical legitimacy to govern Qing territories

How did early revolutionaries in the 1900s view the Qing?

They saw China as oppressed by the Manchus and sought to revive a Han-centered nation-state.

What was the “18-star flag” of the Xinhai Revolution?

A flag representing the 18 Han-Chinese provinces to be liberated from Qing rule.

What is Zhonghua Minzu?

A concept of a “Chinese nation” including all Han and non-Han peoples

How did Sun Yat-sen’s view on non-Han peoples change?

Initially supportive of their rights

What was Chiang Kai-shek’s approach to ethnic identity?

He rejected recognition of distinct ethnic identities

How did the CCP interpret the Qing dynasty under Mao?

Through a Marxist lens

How did the CCP justify rule over Tibet?

By claiming it liberated Tibetans from feudal oppression

What was Maoist ethnic policy?

Ethnic minorities were granted limited self-rule and cultural rights

What shift in ethnic policy occurred under Xi Jinping?

Ethnic diversity is less tolerated

Why is the question of non-Han peoples in China politically sensitive?

Because their inclusion or exclusion affects national unity

How does Qian connect Qing history to “security”?

Misinterpretations of Qing history are seen as threats to national unity and territorial integrity.

What long-standing puzzle does Qian highlight?

Whether China is a Han nation or a multiethnic one

How did early republican leaders address Qing territories?

They proposed an inclusive national identity (Zhonghua Minzu) to unify Han and non-Han peoples under the Republic.

How did the PRC initially view ethnic minorities?

As politically subordinate groups who could retain culture if loyal to the socialist state.

What role does the Qing Empire play in China’s territorial claims?

It is used to justify modern China’s inheritance of vast multiethnic territories beyond China proper.

How does NQH reinterpret Qing governance?

It emphasizes the Manchu elite’s use of different administrative systems for non-Han regions

Why was a government-commissioned Qing history draft vetoed?

It was considered overly influenced by NQH perspectives

What titles did Manchu rulers use in frontier regions?

Titles like “Khagan

How does Qian historicize debates about Qing identity?

He traces discussions from early republic revolutionaries to Maoist China

How did early republic leaders attempt to unify diverse ethnic groups?

Through political loyalty to the republic and the inclusive concept of Zhonghua Minzu

How did Maoist ideology frame the Qing Empire?

As a feudal

What is the difference between Maoist and Xi Jinping-era ethnic policy?

Mao allowed cultural autonomy with political conformity

Xi emphasizes ideological and cultural assimilation into a single Chinese identity.

Why is the Qing dynasty central to China’s national identity?

Because it defines both territorial boundaries and historical narratives that justify China’s multiethnic state.

What is the political implication of framing the Qing as multinational?

It can delegitimize China’s claim to non-Han borderlands and encourage separatist arguments.

How did the Kuomintang approach ethnic assimilation?

They sought to culturally integrate non-Han peoples into Han norms while promoting political loyalty to the state.

Why is the question of Qing identity still relevant in the 21st century?

Because it underpins debates over the Chinese nation

How did early revolutionaries view non-Han regions like Tibet and Xinjiang?

They often ignored them or saw them as peripheral

What was the “Five Races Under One Union” principle?

A republican-era idea to integrate Han

Why did early republicans promote Zhonghua Minzu?

To create a shared national identity transcending ethnic differences and unify former Qing territories.

How did the CCP justify its control over former Qing frontier regions?

By portraying its rule as liberation from Manchu oppression and promising socialist equality for all ethnic groups.

How did Leninist ideology influence Maoist ethnic policies?

It framed ethnic minorities as part of class struggle and emphasized political loyalty over cultural assimilation.

What was the principle of “Regional Ethnic Autonomy”?

Ethnic minorities could manage cultural and linguistic affairs locally

Why did the Mao-era CCP avoid forced cultural assimilation?

They prioritized political conformity and socialist ideology over eliminating ethnic diversity.

How does Qian describe Xi Jinping’s approach to ethnic policy?

It is assertive

Why are questions about the Qing historically sensitive in China?

Because they affect national unity

How do NQH scholars’ methods differ from traditional Sinologists?

They use non-Chinese sources

Why is the Manchu ruling class important in NQH studies?

They retained non-Chinese

How did traditional Sinocentric historiography portray the Qing?

As largely assimilated into Chinese culture

What is the key difference between NQH and traditional views?

NQH emphasizes Qing as a multinational empire

How did the PRC initially interpret Qing history in terms of class?

As a period where Han and non-Han alike were oppressed by the Manchu feudal elite.

Why did Chinese authorities criticize “China’s Hidden Century”?

For presenting the Qing as a multiethnic empire

What is “historical nihilism” in the Chinese critique of NQH?

The claim that certain historical interpretations (like NQH) threaten national identity and sovereignty.

How do frontier regions challenge the notion of a Han-centered China?

They were historically ruled differently

Why does Qian focus on historiography?

To show how interpretations of the Qing shape contemporary political narratives and territorial claims.

How did Sun Yat-sen’s policies shift regarding ethnic minorities?

From initial respect for cultural differences to advocating Han assimilation for national unity.

How did Chiang Kai-shek’s government refer to ethnic groups like the Hui?

As “citizens with unique living habits” rather than distinct ethnic groups.

What was the CCP’s narrative on Tibet?

That Tibetans were freed from feudal oppression and integrated as equal citizens under socialism.

How did Mao’s ethnic policies differ from Sun and Chiang’s?

Mao allowed cultural autonomy and emphasized political unity over forced assimilation.

Why does Xi Jinping’s policy reflect insecurity over borderlands?

Rising separatist movements in Xinjiang and Tibet prompt stronger control over national identity.

How does the concept of “security” relate to history in Qian’s essay?

Misinterpreting Qing history is seen as threatening China’s territorial integrity and unity.

What role does historiography play in territorial claims?

It legitimizes or undermines China’s control over former Qing territories based on how the Qing is interpreted.

Why did Chinese historians label NQH as a “neo-imperialist project”?

Because it challenges the legitimacy of China’s sovereignty over multiethnic regions.

How does the Qing empire’s size complicate Chinese national identity?

Its inclusion of Mongolia

Why is defining the Qing’s “Chineseness” important politically?

It underpins claims to sovereignty

How did NQH scholars study non-Han regions differently?

They examined governance

Why was the Qing considered larger than “China proper”?

Because it governed vast non-Han territories beyond the historical Han heartland.

How did early revolutionaries view the Manchu elite?

As foreign oppressors whose removal was necessary for a true Chinese nation.

Why is the Qing dynasty “paradoxical” according to Qian?

It both defines China’s territorial boundaries and exceeds traditional Chinese cultural identity.

What lesson does Qian draw from debates about Qing history?

That definitions of “China” and “Chinese nation” are politically contested and historically variable.

How did the PRC reinterpret Qing history under Mao?

Through Marxist ideology emphasizing class oppression rather than ethnic governance.

What is the difference between early Republican and CCP approaches to nationhood?

Republicans emphasized political unity and inclusion

CCP emphasized class and later political loyalty under socialism.

Why is Qing historiography linked to modern Chinese ideology?

It is used to justify national identity

How do non-Han peoples factor into Xi’s nation-building?

They are expected to internalize a Chinese identity

What is the significance of multiethnic Qing governance?

It challenges the narrative of a unified

How does Qian illustrate the “securitization” of history?

By showing how controlling historical narratives is used to protect national unity and political authority.