History iGCSE - Key Question 2 - To What Extent was the League of Nations a Success?

When was the League of Nations formed?

January 10 1920

Who came up with the League of Nations?

President Woodrow Wilson of the USA

Why did the US Congress not want to join the League of Nations?

- The league was supposed to enforce the Treaty of Versailles, but the German population in the US hated the treaty.

- If the league imposed sanctions, it might be American trade that suffered the most.

- Some feared that joining the League would mean sending US soldiers to help in European conflicts, which many didn't want to be involved in

- There was a belief that Britain and France (imperialist powers) would have the most influence in the league, most people in the USA were against imperialism.

What was Article 10 of the Covenant of the League?

Article 10 called for the members of the league to assist any member threatened by the aggression of another country in an ideology known as Collective Security.

What were the Covenant's aims for the League of Nations?

- to discourage aggression from any nation

- to encourage countries to cooperate, especially in business and trade

- to encourage nations to disarm

- to improve the working and living conditions of people all over the world

What were the three stages of Collective Security?

Moral disapproval, economic sanctions, military sanctions

What was moral disapproval, in terms of collective security?

Following an act of aggression, the Council would meet and vote to condemn the action. This was intended to direct hate or dislike towards the aggressive country, hoping for that to drop it's aggressive action.

What were economic sanctions, in terms of collective security?

Arranging a trade boycott and refusing credit if moral disapproval failed.

What were military sanctions, in terms of collective security?

The Council would impose military sanctions. One way of doing this would be sending an army to assist the victim of aggressions.

DIsadvantages of unanimous voting with the League of Nations:

It would take just one negative vote for the motion to fail making it difficult to take decisive action against a country that decided to disturb the peace.

Disadvantages of not having an army for the League of Nations:

The League wouldn't have forces to call upon if it wanted to impose military sanctions and members of the league would have to contribute to a military force, which took time and didn't guarantee the formation of an appropriate army.

Why wasn't Germany allowed to join the League of Nations? What was the impact of that decision on the League?

After WW1, Germany wasn't allowed to join until it could prove it was a "peace-loving" country. This made the League seem like an organisation for the victorious powers closely associated with the Treaty of Versailles. Germany joined the League in 1926 but was taken out of it as part of Hitler's first foreign policy actions in 1933.

Why was Soviet Russia not invited to the League of Nations?

It was a communist power that was dedicated to taking down capitalism. Soviet Russia didn't desire to join either due to some of the League's members were assisting in the counter-revolution during the Russian Civil War. Soviet Russia joined the league in 1934, only to be expelled after invading Finland in 1939.

Japan's involvement in the League of Nations.

It was one of the original members of the League when it formed but left in 1933 when it received criticism for invading Manchuria.

Italy's involvement in the League of Nations.

An original member but left in 1937 following its invasion of Abyssinia and the imposition of sanctions.

Britain's involvement in the League of Nations

Britain was one of the only major countries that were members of the League throughout its existence. It was weakened by the First World War and had the responsibility of making the League work despite having doubts about it's effectiveness. Britain mainly prioritised rebuilding British trade and maintaining its empire.

France's involvement in the League of Nations.

France was one of the only major countries that were members of the League throughout its existence. It was weakened by the First World War and had the responsibility of making the League work despite having doubts about it's effectiveness. France was mainly concerned with increasing security against Germany.

The key organisations of the League of Nations

The Secretariat, Assembly and Council

What was the Secretariat's role in the League of Nations?

The Secretariat was the civil service of the League. It performed all the administrative and financial work such as organising conferences and keeping record of them, distributing agendas, monitoring budgets and publishing reports etc. The Secretariat also had specialist sections that covered areas such as health, disarmament and economic matters.

What was the Assembly's role in the League of Nations?

The Assembly was the League's parliament. Every country sent. a representative to the meetings held once a year, and they each had one vote.

The Assembly would recommend actions to the Council and vote on:

- admitting new members to the League

- appointing temporary members of the Council

- the budget of the League

- other ideas put forward by the Council

Decisions had to be unanimous

What was the Council's role in the League of Nations?

The Council is the executive body of the League and they met four to five times a year and in emergencies. It included:
- Permanent members, in 1920 these were Britain, France, Japan and Japan. Germany became a permanent member in 1926
- Temporary members, which were elected by the Assembly for periods of 3 years. The number of temporary members increased from 4 in 1920 to 11 in 1936.
Each permanent members had a veto, which meant that they could stop the Council acting even if everyone else agreed.

What was the Permanent Court of International Justice's role in the League of Nations?

The Court's role was to help settle disputes between countries peacefully.
It was based in The Hague in Netherlands and was staffed by 11 judges and 4 deputy judges which were elected for 9 years by the Assembly and the Council.
If it was asked, the Court would give a decision on a border dispute between two countries and would also give legal advice to the Assembly or the Council. The Court had no way of knowing whether countries followed their rulings.

What was the International Labour Organisation's role in the League of Nations?

The ILO brought together employers, government's and worker's representatives once a year, aiming to promote good working practices around the world. It collected statistics and information about the working conditions around the world and tried to persuade member countries to adopt its practices. It was based in Geneva.

What happened in Vilna in 1920?

Lithuania and Poland were members of the LoN and were created by post- war treaties. Vilna had a largely Polish population and Poland seized the city. Lithuania appealed to the League of Nations for help. The League asked Polish troops to withdraw while a plebiscite was arranged, but Poland refused. France and Great Britain could have sent troops but did nothing as they didn't want to upset the Poles (a potential future ally), and the matter was passed on to the Conference of Ambassadors who awarded Vilna to Poland. This is seen as a failure on the League of Nations's part.

What happened in the Aaland Islands in 1921?

Aaland Islands are situated midway between Finland and Sweden and both countries wanted control over it. Historically, the islands belonged to Finland but the majority of the population wished to be governed by Sweden. Both countries were going to fight over it but they appealed to the League of Nations who, after investigating, awarded the islands to Finland with safeguards including demilitarisation in that area. Sweden accepted and conflict was avoided in that area.

What happened in Upper Silesia in 1921?

Upper Silesia was industrial region with rich iron and steel industries on border between Germany and Poland with residents of both ethnicities. The area belonged to Poland following the Treaty of Versailles. A plebiscite organised for it's residents to vote to join either Poland or Germany. The industrial areas voted for Germany while rural voted for Poland. The League of Nations divided nation along these lines and built safeguards to prevent future disputes, safeguarded rail links between the 2 countries and made arrangements for water and power supplies across the borders. Both countries accepted the decision and Eastern Upper Silesia went to Poland and Western Upper Silesia went to Germany.

What happened in Corfu in 1923?

And Italian general and his team were murdered in Greece. Mussolini demanded compensation (50 million lira) and for the murderers to be executed, but Greece didn't know who the murderers were so couldn't do this. Mussolini invaded Corfu. The League of Nations condemned him but he undermined them by complaining to the Conference of Ambassadors. Greece was forced to apologise to Mussolini and pay compensation. Mussolini had shown that the League of Nations could not enforce justice, and that they could easily be ignored.

What was the Geneva protocol?

A plan devised by British Prime Minister MacDonald and French Prime Minister Herriot saying if two members were in dispute, they would ask the League and would have to accept their decision. This was made in hope to strengthen the league but before this could be put into effect there was a general election in Britain and a new government was elected. The new Conservative government refused to sign the protocol, worried that Britain would be forced to agree to something that wasn't in its best interests. This further weakened the League.

What happened in Mosul in 1924?

Turkey claimed the Kurdish-populated province of Mosul which was part of the British-mandated territory of Iraq. The League investigated in the matter and made an award in favour of Iraq. Turkey accepted.

What happened in Bulgaria in 1925?

Greek troops invaded Bulgaria after an incident on the border where Greek troops were killed. Bulgaria appealed to the League for help while also sending instructions to its army. The League demanded both sides stand down and Greek forces to withdraw from Bulgaria. Britain and France backed the League's decision (they were negotiating the Locarno Treaties at the time). The League sent observers to assess the situation and judged in favour of Bulgaria. Greece had to pay £45,000 to Bulgaria as compensation and was threatened with sanctions if they didn't comply. Greece agreed but complained that there was one rule for larger states (namely countries like Italy, especially after the Corfu incident) and another for smaller nations (such as themselves).

How successful was the League's refugee organisation and what did they do?

The League did tremendous work when it came to the refugee crisis:

- Dutch explorer Fridtjof Nansen introduced a document called the "Nansen Passport" that made it easier for refugees to travel across borders to get home or settle in a new land.

- It is estimated that roughly 400,000 were returned home within the first few years after the war.

- When war hit Turkey in 1922, hundreds of thousands of people were housed in refugee camps and the League acted quickly to stamp out cholera, smallpox and dysentery in the camps.

- Nansen also involved finding suitable transport, creating new settlements and teaching new trade and skills.

How successful was the League's health organisation and what did they do?

The Health organisation is regarded as the League's most successful of the agencies:

- They collected statistics and spread good practice.

- They also sponsored research for infectious diseases in institutes in places such as Singapore, Denmark and London, which helped in making vaccines and medicine for diseases such as leprosy, diphtheria, tetanus and tuberculosis.

- A global campaign was started to exterminate mosquitoes, which reduced cases of malaria and yellow fever.

- Even the USSR, which was against the League at the time, took the advice of the health organisation to reduce the plague/typhus in Siberia.

How successful was the League's international labour organisation and what did they do?

The ILO was successful in improving the working conditions and raising awareness about the mistreat of workers, however they were also hindered by a lack of funds.

- They were successful in banning the use of white lead paint, which was poisonous.

- They reduced the amount of hours children worked and introduced a minimum employment age.

- They introduced a 48-hour working week and 8-hour working day as well as annual holidays with pay.

- They gave workers the right to join trade unions.

How successful as the League's slavery organisation and what did they do?

This organisation's objective was to stamp out slavery and slave dealing as well as other exploitative practices such as 'white slave trading' (forcing young women and children into prostitution). However, the continued existence of slave trading was acknowledged in a 1937 report and white-slave trading remained a problem even in the 21st century:
- They enquired persistently, published reports and constantly coaxed governments that appeared slow or evasive in taking action.
- They freed 200,000 slaves in Sierra Leone
- Challenged the use of forced labour on the Tanganyikan railway and reduced the death rate from 50% to 4%.
- A number of countries abolished slavery altogether, such as Iraq, Nepal and Jordan.
- The League organised raids against slave owners in Burma.

How successful was the League's transport organisation and what did they do?

The League made recommendation on marking shipping lanes and produced an international highway code for road users.

What happened at the 1921 Washington Conference?

Britain, Japan and the USA all agreed to limit their navies. Japan was only allowed to build 3 battleships for every 5 that the USA and Britain had.
This was slightly effective in disarmament. While countries agreed to limit their navy, it's not a complete disarmament and not all countries got involved.

What happened with the 1924 Dawes Plan?

The Dawes plan was a deal between Germany and the USA. The USA loaned money to Germany to help pay reparations. This set up a 'Money-Go-Round' in Europe. This reduced tension between European countries, however the economy didn't improve.

What happened with the 1925 Locarno Treaties?

Germany, France and Belgium all agreed to keep the borders set up by the Treaty of Versailles. Britain and Italy agreed to guarantee these treaties. It was seen as a sign of peace has the government of Germany had finally accepted the Treaty of Versailles, however the German people still weren't happy with the treaty. This didn't encourage demilitarisation either but it did reduce tension.

What happened with the 1928 Kellogg-Briand pact?

This was the idea of the American foreign secretary, Kellogg and the French Prime Minister, Briand. All the countries which signed the pact agreed to 'abolish war as an instrument of policy' (not use war to get what they want). In all, 65 countries signed the pact. This pact reduced hostility and the threat of war slightly.

What happened with the 1929 Young Plan?

It was between the USA and Germany. It reduced the reparations that Germany had to pay. Everyone hoped that this would bring peace. This still didn't help the economy of Europe and the US however hostility reduced drastically.

How did the depression make the League's work more difficult?

- League members were reluctant to impose sanctions (military and economic) as it would damage their economies as well. Major powers such as Britain and France also didn't see the League as a priority as they were dealing with their economic crises.
- Brought extremists into power that were violent and aggressive.
- Brought extremists into power that were violent and aggressive.
- Put pressure on countries to find new markets and sources of raw materials, usually through colonisation or annexation but it would involve war.

What were the reasons Japan wanted to invade Manchuria?

- The population had begun to grow rapidly and Japan needed more land and raw materials
- Manchuria had resources of coal and iron that Japan lacked
- The price of rice and exports of silk were affected by the depression and they needed to recover.

What was the Mukden Railway Incident?

In 1931, Japanese troops staged an attack on the railway, blaming it on the Chinese. Japan invades China as a result, claiming it was "self-defense" and to bring order to China as it was a "lawless country". By 1932, Japan had taken over Manchuria, renamed it Manchukuo and set up a puppet government with the Chinese emperor heading it.

How did the League respond to the Mukden Railway Incident?

After China appealed to the League, the League could have called for sanctions but failed to do so.
- None of the European powers wanted to reduce trade with the Far East since Americans would simply take over the lost business.
- Military sanctions were less appealing. European states would have had to send their navies to the other side of the world, without a definite chance of success
- Both France and Britain had colonies in the area and feared sanctions would provoke an attack

What was the Lytton Commission?

A League of Nations commission headed by Lord Lytton that investigated the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Together with a four-man team, including a US representative, Lytton spent six weeks in Manchuria and concluded that Japan's invasion of China was not justified. A vote was held in the assembly about the report and the vote was unanimous (42 to 1). Japan ended up leaving the League and invading Jehol the following week.

What happened at the 1932 Disarmament Conference?

Sixty-one nations met in Geneva to talk about disarmament. The USSR proposed complete disarmament, while Germany proposed that all nations should have equal arms. The conference did little more than emphasise the differences between nations. A conclusion for this conference never came. Germany walked out and had differing opinions to the USSR. The major powers, such as Britain and France, refused to disarm which brought the question as to why smaller countries should disarm when larger countries were not. There was definitely hostility after the conference.

Why did Italy invade Abyssinia?

- Italy had invaded before in 1896 but had been humiliatingly defeated by the Abyssinian Army at the battle of Adowa. This was revenge.
- Italy was suffering badly because of the Depression and Abyssinia had many resources that would be of use to them.
- To divert public opinion from the failures of Mussolini's domestic policies which were making him increasingly unpopular.
- He wanted to restore the Roman empire and Abyssinia would be the start of that.

What was the Wal-Wal incident with Italy?

A dispute that occurred between Italian and Abyssinian soldiers at Wal Wal, which was 80km in Abyssinia, in December 1934. Mussolini claimed that the area was Italian territory and demanded an apology and prepared for an invasion. Abyssinian emperor Haile Selassie appealed to the League for help.

When did Mussolini invade Abyssinia?

October 1935

How did the League respond to the invasion of Abyssinia?

Britain and France were desperate to keep Italy as an ally and prevent Mussolini from allying with Hitler. However, upon the invasion, the League quickly imposed sanctions upon Italy, and materials such as oil and coal were excluded from the list.

What was the Hoare-Laval pact?

A secret deal between Italy, France and Britain that would have given Mussolini most of Abyssinia (2/3 of Abyssinia) in return for peace. It was leaked by the French press and the public in both countries were in uproar.

How did the League fail to help Abyssinia?

- They were undermined when the Hoare-Laval pact came to light and any sort of moral authority the League had disappeared.
- Both Britain and France were desperate to keep Italy on their side against Germany and overlooked the conflict in Abyssinia as a result.
- Britain refused to close the Suez Canal, which was the main artery for the supply of the Italian army, for fear that it would declare war on Italy.