AP Psychology Unit 0

Including vocab, perspectives, important people, questions and theories

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength. of the correlation(little scatter indicates high correlation)

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables.

experimental group

in an experiment the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting difference between the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition which the recipient assumes is an active agent

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group i sstudied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it or below it

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by theory

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures(operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstance

case study

a descriptive technique which one individual or group i studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative random sample of the group

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and concussion. Rather it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions

Hindsight bias

the tendency to believe after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it

Skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of much scores vary around mean score

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68%) in one standard deviation of it and fewer and fewer near the extremes

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

regression towards the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back(regress) toward their average

meta-analysis

a procedure for statically combing the results of many different research studies

effect size

any of various measures of the magnitude or meaningfulness of a relationship between two variables

single blind procedure

participants are unaware of the experimental conditions under which they are operating

peer review

the evaluation of scientific or academic work, such as research or articles submitted to journals for publication, by other qualified professionals practicing in the same field

falsifiable

the logical possibility that an assertion, hypothesis, or theory can be shown to be false by an observation or experiment

social desirability bias

bias or tendency of individual to present themselves in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others

variable

a condition in an experiment or a characteristic of an entity, person, or object that can take on different categories, levels, or values and that can be quantified

experimenter bias

any systematic error in the research process or the interpretation of its results that are attributable to a researchers behavior, preconceived beliefs, expectancies, or desires about results

qualitative research

a method of research that produces descriptive data, such as observations of behavior or personal accounts of experiences

percentile rank

the location of a score in a distribution expressed as the percentage of cases in the data set with scores equal to or below the score in question

self report bias

a methodological problem that arises when researchers rely on asking people to escribe their thoughts, feelings, or behavior rather than measuring these directly and objectively

theories can bias…

observations

operational definitions allow people to…

replicate the study

individual cases may mislead when what

if the individual is atypical

unrepresentative info can lead to what?

mistaken judgements

surveys are?

estimates from a representative sample of people

asking questions can be difficult because?

depending on the wording of the question

What might affect peoples expressed opinions?

changes in order or wording

random sample is best for what?

generalizing from a representative sample

a testable prediction that drives research is a what?

hypothesis

which perspective explains human behavior by looking at the interaction of learning and inherited genetics?

behavior genetics

psychologists that focus on understanding unconscious drives and conflicts in explaining human behavior use which psychological perspective?

psychodynamic

who opened the first experimental laboratory in psychology?

Wilhelm wundt

who founded/contributed to functionalism?

William James, G. Stanley Hall, James Cattell, John Dewey

who founded/contributed to structuralism?

Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener

scatterplots show what?

what one might miss so they graph their data

association does not prove?

causation

an experiment does what?

manipulate a variable to determine its effect

random assignment controls what variables?

confounding variables

case studies cannot be what?

replicated

if an idea about a persons behavior turns out to be right, it reinforces trust in intuition which is also known as?

hindsight bias

mean, median, and mode are what?

descriptive statistics

correlation research cannot?

determine cause and effect

how to stop experimenter bias?

single blind or double blind procedures

a weakness of a case study is?

they are time consuming and expensive

Wundt argued that psychology…?

Psychology should be the scientific study of consciousness

functionalism fostered?

the emergence of behaviorism and applied psychology

structuralism argued?

that psychology should use introspection to analyze consciousness into its basic elements

behaviorism is founded/contributed by?

John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner

Behaviorism is the study of?

observable behavior

psychoanalytic theory emphasizes?

unconscious determinants of behavior and the importance of sexuality

Humanism founders/contributors?

Carl Rodgers and Abraham Maslow

describe humanistic psychological perspective

people choose most of our thoughts and behaviors based on needs to belong, feel loved, and be connected to others

describe psychodynamic psychological perspective

thoughts and behaviors are driven by suppressed unconscious desires for unacceptable sex and aggression, and unconscious motives and experiences in early childhood govern personality and mental disorders

describe biological psychological perspective

thoughts and behaviors are explained in terms of biological processes (genetics, hormones, brain chemicals)

describe evolutionary psychological perspective

explains thoughts and behaviors in terms of natural selection; psychological traits that are advantageous for survival get passed down

describe behavioral psychological perspective

thoughts and behaviors are motivated by others reactions; we continue doing things that are rewarded and stop doing things that are punished

describe cognitive psychological perspective

explains human thought and behavior in terms of how we think about, interpret, process and remember environmental thinking

describe social cultural psychological perspective

explains human thought and behavior in terms of variations in cultures; what is valued by a society or culture

functionalism focuses on?

the adaptive purposes of conscious experience are more important than its structure