apes 678

Ethics

moral principles that govern a person's behavior or the conducting of an activity

Economics

social science that studies how individuals, businesses, governments, and societies make choices about allocating limited resources

Relativist

a person who adheres to the doctrine that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to culture, society, or historical context, and are not absolute

Universalist

a person advocating loyalty to and concern for others without regard to national or other allegiances

Culture

the customs, arts, social institutions, and achievements of a particular nation, people, or other social group

Instrumental value

the worth of something based on its ability to help achieve a specific goal or objective, serving as a means to an end

Intrinsic value

true, inherent worth of an asset or entity, determined by fundamental factors rather than market price fluctuations

Environmental ethics

examines the moral relationship between humans and the environment

Anthropocentrism

belief that human beings are the central or most important entity on the planet

Biocentrism

belief that all living organisms have equal worth

Ecocentrism

belief that all living and nonliving things are equally important to the environment

Transadentalism

literary, philosophical, and religious movement that emphasizes spiritual self-reliance and individualism

Preservation ethic

principles and guidelines that govern the conservation of cultural heritage, historic sites, and artifacts

Conservation ethic

principles guiding the preservation of nature and its resources

Environmental justice

fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people in environmental decision-making

Market equilibrium

state of product or service market at which the intentions of producers and consumers

Supply and demand

fundamental economic concepts that describe how the quantity of goods and services available in a market interacts with consumer demand to determine prices and market equilibrium

Economy

area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services

Classical economics

foundational school of economic thought, emphasizing free markets, minimal government intervention, and the self-regulating nature of economies

Neoclassical economics

economic theory that emphasizes the role of supply and demand in determining the production, pricing, and consumption of goods and services

Cost-Benefit analysis

systematic approach used to evaluate the financial and economic feasibility of a project by comparing its expected costs and benefits

External cost

unintended negative effects of economic activities, often leading to market failures and societal burdens

Discounting

determines the present value of future cash flows, including risks and time value

Economic growth

increase in the production of goods and services in an economy over time, measured in GDP

Environmental economics

study of how humans produce and consume goods and services

Ecological economics

examines the relationship between human economies and natural ecosystems

Steady-state economy

economic system made up of a constant stock of physical wealth (capital) and a constant stock of people (population)

Non-market values

economic worth of goods and services that are not traded in traditional markets

Contingent valuation

estimates the value of non-market resources, such as environmental quality and public goods

Gross domestic product

(GDP) economic indicator that measures the total monetary value of all final goods and services produced during a specific time period in a country

Genuine Progress indicator

(GPI) like GDP, but takes environmental and social factors into account

Full cost accounting

(FCA/TCA), accounting approach that measures and values the hidden impacts of economic activities on the environment, society, and health

Market failure

situation in which the allocation of goods and services by a free market is not Pareto efficient, leading to a net loss of economic value

Ecolabeling

system that identifies products meeting low environmental impact criteria and provides insight for consumer decision-making

Socially responsible investing

investments that are considered socially responsible

Greenwashing

often deceptive practice where companies portray a misleading image of environmental responsibility to consumers

Sustainable development

approach to social, economic, and environmental planning that attempts to balance the social and economic needs of present and future human generations

Triple bottom line

business framework that evaluates a company's commitment to social, environmental, and financial performance, aka "people, planet, profit."

Sustainable development goals

17 global goals adopted by the United Nations in 2015 to promote peace and prosperity for people and the planet by 2030

Policy

a course or principle of action adopted or proposed by a government, party, business, or individual

Public policy

the principle that injury to the public good is a basis for denying the legality of a contract or other transaction

Environmental policy

any measure by a government or other organization regarding the effects of human activities on the environment

Tragedy of the commons

individuals, acting in their own self-interest, can deplete shared resources, leading to negative consequences for the entire community

Free riders

market failure that occurs when those who benefit from resources, public goods and common pool resources do not pay for them or under-pay

Polluter-pays principle

those who produce pollution should bear the costs associated with it

Revolving door

movement of individuals between public and private sector roles, often leads to conflict

Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA), U.S. federal agency dedicated to protecting human health and the environment

Legislation

laws, considered collectively

Regulations

mandatory requirements established by authorities to govern behavior and ensure compliance with laws

Executive orders

directive issued by the President of the United States or a state governor that has the force of law

Regulatory taking

situation in which government regulations restrict the use of private property to the extent that the landowner is substantially deprived of its reasonable use or value

Public trust doctrine

legal principle that mandates the government to protect certain natural resources for public use

Environmental history

study of human interaction with the natural world over time

National Environmental Policy Act

requires federal agencies to assess the environmental effects of their proposed actions before making decisions

Environmental impact statement

comprehensive document that assesses the potential environmental effects of proposed federal projects

Globalization

process of increasing interdependence and integration among the economies, markets, societies, and cultures of different countries worldwide

Customary law

established pattern of behavior within a particular social setting

Conventional law

system of rules and regulations established by human authorities to govern a community or society

UN

United Nations, intergovernmental organization aimed at maintaining international peace and security

World Bank

International organization affiliated with the United Nations, provides loans and grants to poorer countries

EU

European Union, economic and political union of countries, work together on various issues, including trade, security, and governance

WTO

World Trade organization, intergovernmental organization that regulates international trade

NGO

Non-governmental organization, mission-driven organization that operates independently of the government

Command-and-control

the running of an armed force or other organization

Green tax

financial charge imposed on activities, goods, or services that are considered harmful to the environment

Subsidy

sum of money granted by the government or a public body to assist an industry or business so that the price of a commodity may remain low

IPAT model

I = PAT, illustrates how human impact (I) on the environment is a function of population (P), affluence (A), and technology (T)

Demography

study of statistics such as births, deaths, income, or the incidence of disease, illustrate changes in population

Population size

total number of individual organisms in a population, often denoted as N

Population density and distribution

number of individuals living per unit area, while population distribution describes how individuals are spread across that area.

Age structure

distribution of different age groups within a population

Sex ratio

ratio of males to females in a population

Infant mortality rate

critical indicator of public health, representing the number of infant deaths per 1,000 live births

Migration

seasonal movement of birds or animals from one region to another

Total fertility rate

demographic measure that estimates the average number of children a woman would have during her lifetime

Replacement fertility

like TFR, but assuming constant mortality rates and zero net migration

Life expectancy

the average period that a person may expect to live

Pre-industrial stage

societal characteristics and demographic patterns that existed before the Industrial Revolution

Transitional stage

period of change or evolution from one state to another

Industrial stage

significant decline in death rates and continued high birth rates, leading to rapid population growth

Post industrial stage

shift from manufacturing-based economies to service-oriented economies

Family planning

practice of controlling the number of children in a family by means of contraception or sterilization

Reproductive window

period in a woman's menstrual cycle when she is most likely to conceive