Memory

Encoding

Process by which a stimulus is translated into a mental representation that may be stored in memory

Storage

changes in the neural system that allows retention of information. involves moving encoded information to a memory store

Retrieval

a process of recovering information from a memory store

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Model of Memory

attention filters information from sensory memory to STM, rehearsal maintains information in STM and transfers it to LTM, and retrieval brings information back from the LTM when needed

Sensory Memory

receives input form the environment and holds information in an unprocessed form. if information is attended to, it goes into STM

Short Term (Working) Memory

limited to 5-9 chunks of information, holds information for 30-60 seconds

long term memory

relatively permanent, assumed to be unlimited. we store different types of memories in different parts of the brain-borne out by research into neurological impairment

Semantic (LTM)

memory for meaning

Episodic (LTM)

our own individual memories

Procedural (LTM)

memories of how to do something

Central Executive

the boss of working memory, allocates data to the subsystems: phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. decides which information is attended to and where it is sent

Phonological Loop

component of working memory model that deals with spoken and written material. spoken words are held for 1-2 seconds. written words must be converted into a spoken code and then enter memory store

phonological store

holds information in a speech-based form

articulatory process

allows us to repeat verbal information in a loop

visuospatial sketchpad (inner eye)

stores processes information in a visual or spatial form. helps us keep trach of where we are in relation to other objects. displays and manipulates visual and spatial information held in long-term memory

episodic buffer

acts as a backup store which communicates with both long-term memory and the components of working memory

levels of processing model

focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory, and predicts the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last

shallow processing

only involves maintenance rehearsal (repetition) and leads to fairly short-term retention of information

structural processing (appearance)

when we encode only the physical qualities of something

Phonemic Processing

when we encode its sound

semantic processing (deep processing)

when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning

elaboration rehearsal (deep processing)

involves a more meaningful analysis of information and leads to a better recall

divided attention

the ability to process two or more responses or react to two or more different demands simultaneously

Explicit memory

info you consciously work to remember

implicit memory

info remembered unconsciously and effortlessly

effortful processing

active processing of information that requires sustained effort

automatic processing

the unconscious processing of incidental or well-learned information

flashbulb memory

immediate and permanent memory as the result to emotionally charged, surprising, and or consequential events

Serial Position Effect

probability of recalling any word depended on it position in the list. words presented at the beginning or end are better remembered than words in the middle

Spacing Effect

learning is more effective when repeated in spaced-out sessions

Chunking (Mnemonic Device)

separating disparate individual elements into larger blocks makes them easier to recall

Methods of Loci (Mnemonic Device)

people remember information by visualizing familiar spaces

Retroactive interference

when more recent information gets in the way of trying to recall older information

proactive interference

difficulties in learning and retention caused by the interference of previously learned material

Recall

ability to remember something without being prompted

Recognition

ability to recognize something you have seen before

Context-Dependent Memory (Environment)

when recall is stronger when a subject is present in the same environment in which the original memory was formed

Mood-Congruent Memory

individuals are more likely to recall memories that are congruent with their current emotional state

State-Dependent Memory

ability to recall something may be based on the state the person was in when the information was encoded and retrieved

Source Amnesia

inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge

Anxiety and Stress (Eyewitness Testimony)

Clifford and Scott (1978) found that people who saw a film of a violent attack remembered fewer of the 40 items of information about the event than the group that did not see a violent attack

Reconstructive Memory

recall is subject to personal interpretation dependent on our cultural norms and values

Weapon Focus

not unusual for a witness to be able to describe the weapon in a crime in better detail compared to the person

Leading Question

a question that suggests what answer is desired or leads to the desired answer

Misinformation Effect

the impairment in memory for the past that arises after exposure to misleading information

Anterograde Amnesia

can recall past but not make new memories

Retrograde

cannot recall past memories

Encoding Failure

failure to encode information

Retrieval Failure

failure to retrieve information

Storage Decay

gradual fading of the physical memory trace

Forgetting Curve

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon

a state in which one cannot quite recall a familiar word but can recall words of similar form and meaning