Research Methodology

Quantitative

• Variables that can not be assigned a number (such as a measure of stress or anxiety), need to be operationalized or quantified.

• Construct – a theoretically identifiable variable

• You must operationalize a construct in quantitative studies.

• Operationalization - a process of defining the measurement of a phenomenon that is not directly measurable

• Types of Quantitative Studies:

  • Experimental Studies

    • Includes one independent variable and a dependent variable, while the other potentially important variables are controlled. Finds a cause-and-effect relationship.

  • Correlational Studies

    • The researcher does not manipulate any variables (there are no IVs or DVs). Variables are measured and the relationship between them is quantified.

  • Descriptive Studies

    • Relationships between variables are not investigated, and the variables are approached separately. These studies are in the form of interviews or surveys and can be used to obtain an in-depth analysis of an area of interest.

Types of Variables

• Independent Variable: The variable that the researcher manipulates to look for a change in the DV

• Dependent variable: The variable that changes due to a change in the IV

• Control variables: Variables that are kept constant throughout the experiment

• Confounding variables: Variables apart from the IV, that may affect the DV

Sampling

• Sample: The group of people taking part in the experiment

• Target Population: The group of people to which the findings of the study are expected to be generalized

• Types of sampling:

  • Random Sampling: Participants are chosen at random. Everyone has an equal chance of getting selected

  • Stratified Sampling: Participants are chosen based on the proportions of people in the target population

  • Convenience Sampling: People who are most easily available are chosen

  • Self-Selected Sampling: People who self-respond to an ad are chosen

Experimental Designs

• Independent Measures Design: Involves random allocation of participants into groups and a comparison between these groups. Different participants go through different trials.

• Matched Pairs Design

  • Similar to independent measures design.

  • Matching is used to form groups

• Repeated Measure Design

  • Used when the goes is to compare conditions rather than groups of participants

  • The same group of participants is exposed to two or more conditions and then the conditions are compared

Threats to internal validity:

• Selection

  • Occurs if for some reason groups are not equivalent at the start of the experiment.

  • We cannot be sure if the post-experiment differences between groups. reflect the influence of the IV.

• History

  • Refers to outside events that happen to participants in the course of the experiment.

  • These become a problem if they can potentially influence the DV.

• Maturation

  • In the course of the experiment, participants go through natural developmental processes, such as fatigue or simply growth

• Testing Effect

  • The first measurement of the DV may affect the second (and subsequent) measurements

• Instrumentation

  • Occurs when the instrument measuring the DV changes slightly between measurements

• Regression to the mean

  • Regression toward the mean is the tendency for scores to average out

• Experiment mortality

  • Refers to the fact that some participants drop out during an experiment

• Demand characteristics

  • Refers to a situation in which participants understand the purpose of the experiment and change their behavior subconsciously to t that interpretation

• Experimenter bias

  • This refers to situations in which the researcher unintentionally exerts an influence on the results of the study.

  • A double-blind experimental design can be used to combat this.

Types of experiments

• True Lab Experiment

  • IV Manipulated by the researcher

  • Setting = Laboratory

  • We can infer causation from it

• True Field Experiment

  • IV Manipulated by the researcher

  • Setting = Real-life

  • We can infer causation from it (confounding variables may be present)

• Natural Experiment

  • IV Manipulated by nature

  • Setting = Real-life

  • We can’t infer causation from it

• Quasi-experiment

  • IV Not manipulated; the pre-existing difference

  • Setting = Lab or real-life

  • We can’t infer causation from it

Triangulation

• Method Triangulation: The use of different methods in combination to compensate for their limitations and reinforce their strengths

• Data Triangulation: refers to using data from a variety of accessible sources

• Researcher Triangulation: Refers to combining observations/interpretations of different researchers

• Theory Triangulation: Refers to using multiple perspectives or theories to interpret the data

Rapport

• Researchers should ensure that participants are honest

• The researcher should remind participants about voluntary participation and the right to withdraw so that responses are only obtained from participants who are willing to contribute

• It should be made clear to participants that there are no right or wrong answers and in general a good rapport should be established

Iterative questioning

Spotting ambiguous answers and returning to the topic later while at the same time rephrasing the question

Reflexivity

• Researchers should reflect on the possibility that their own biases might have interfered with the observations or interpretations

• Epistemological Reflexivity: Linked to knowledge of the strengths and limitations of the method used to collect data

• Personal Reflexivity: Linked to the personal beliefs and expectations of the researcher

Credibility Checks

This refers to checking the accuracy of data by asking participants themselves to read transcripts of interviews or field notes of observations and confirm that the transcripts or notes are an accurate representation of what they said (meant) or did

Thick descriptions

This refers to explaining not just the observed behavior itself, but also the context in which it occurred so that the description becomes meaningful to an outsider who never observed the phenomenon first-hand

Biases in qualitative research

• Participant bias:

  • Acquiescence bias: the tendency to give positive answers whatever the question

  • Social desirability bias: The participants’ tendency to respond or behave in a way that they think will make them liked or accepted

  • Dominant respondent bias: Occurs in a group interview setting when one of the participants influences the behavior and responses of the others

  • Sensitivity bias: The tendency of participants to answer regular questions honestly, but distort their responses to questions on sensitive subjects

• Researcher bias:

  • Confirmation bias: Occurs when the researcher has a prior belief and uses the research in an unintentional attempt to confirm that belief

  • Leading questions bias: Occurs when respondents in an interview are inclined to answer in a certain way because the wording of the question encourages them to do so

  • Question order bias: Occurs when responses to one question influence the participant’s responses to the following questions

  • Sampling bias: occurs when the sample is not adequate for the aims of the research

  • Biased reporting: occurs when some findings of the study are not equally represented in the research report

Types of Sampling

• Quota sampling: It is decided before the start of research how many people to include in the sample and which characteristics they should have

• Purposive sampling: Similar to quota sampling in the sense that the main characteristics of participants are defined in advance and then researchers recruit participants who have these characteristics

• Theoretical sampling: This is a special type of purposive sampling that stops when the point of data saturation is reached

• Snowball sampling: In this approach, a small number of participants are invited and asked to invite other people they know who also are of interest to the research

• Convenience sampling: You just use the sample that is easily available or accessible

Types of generalization

• Sample to Population: Generalizations made from the sample in your study to the target population the sample is derived from

• Theoretical: Generalization is made from particular observations to a broader theory

• Case to case: Generalization is made to a different group of people or different setting or context

Qualitative research methods

• Observation:

  • The focus of the research is on how people interact, interpret each other’s behavior, and act upon these interpretations in a natural setting

  • The researcher believes meaningful knowledge in the research area cannot be generated without observation.

  • Observation allows the researcher to become deeply immersed in the studied phenomenon

  • Types:

    • Naturalistic Observation: Observation carried out in naturalistic settings, i.e. in a place that has not been arranged for the study

    • Laboratory Observation: Observation carried out in a controlled environment that has been arranged for the study

    • Overt Observation

      • Occurs when participants are aware of the fact that they are being observed

    • Covert Observation

      • Occurs when participants are not aware of the fact that they are being observed

    • Participant Observation

      • Researcher joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight into their lives

    • Structured Observation

      • In structured observation, information is recorded systematically and in a standardized way

    • Unstructured Observation

      • Unstructured observations do not have a pre-defined structure and observers simply register whatever behaviors they find noteworthy

• Interview: This is the only way to get an insight into the nature of subjective experiences and interpretations.

  • Interviews may be used to understand the meanings participants attach to certain events and their points of view.

  • In-depth individual interviews are useful when the topic is too sensitive for people to discuss in a group setting

  • Types:

    • Structured Interviews

      • Includes a fixed list of questions that need to be asked in a fixed order

    • Semi-Structured Interviews

      • Do not specify the order or a particular set of questions, instead, there is a checklist of sorts

    • Unstructured interview

      • Mostly participant-driven, and every next question is determined by the interviewee’s answer to the previous one

• Focus group

  • Advantages

    • It is a quick way to get information from several participants simultaneously.

    • It creates a more natural and comfortable environment than face-to-face, ensuring less participant bias.

    • It is easier to respond to sensitive questions when you are in a group

    • Multiple perspectives are discussed so a more holistic understanding of the topic is achieved

  • Limitations

    • If one of the participants is especially dominant, this may distort the other participants' responses.

    • It is more difficult to preserve anonymity and confidentiality.

    • Focus groups are especially demanding in terms of sampling and creating interview transcripts.

Ethical Considerations

• Informed consent

  • Participation in a study must be voluntary. Participants must fully understand the nature of their involvement including the aims of the study, what tasks they will be exposed to, and how the data will be used

• Protection from harm

  • At all times during the study participants must be protected from physical and mental harm.

• Anonymity and confidentiality

  • Data obtained from the research study is not divulged to anyone and the information about participants isn’t shared

• Withdrawal from participation

  • It must be made explicitly clear to participants that since their participation is voluntary, they are free to withdraw from the study at any time

• Deception

  • To avoid participant bias, the true aims and details of the study are not disclosed to the participants. Deception should be kept to a minimum

• Debriefing

  • After the study participants must be fully informed about the study’s nature and its aims