Q4 APES Vocab

is the primary U.S. federal law regulating the environmental effects of coal mining, mandating active mine regulation and the reclamation of abandoned mines.

1977 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act

energy is neither created nor destroyed, only transferred or transformed

1st Law of Thermodynamics

when energy is transformed, its quality decreases and entropy (disorder) in an isolated system always increases

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

is the transfer of acidic compounds—primarily sulfuric and nitric acids—from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface, occurring through wet (rain, snow, fog) or dry (particles, gas) deposition. Caused by fossil fuel combustion.

Acid Deposition

the outflow of highly acidic, metal-rich water from metal or coal mines, occurring when sulfide minerals (notably pyrite) are exposed to water and oxygen during excavation of mines

Acid Mine Drainage

use mechanical or electrical equipment—such as solar panels, pumps, or fans—to capture, store, and distribute solar energy for heating or electricity generation

Active Solar

immediate, short-term, and typically severe health issues or damage that occur shortly after exposure to a high concentration of a hazardous substance

Acute Effects (Exposure)

the evolutionary process where a population becomes better suited to its environment through changes in traits over time, enhancing survival and reproduction

Adaptation

measures a surface's ability to reflect sunlight (ex: fresh snow)

Albedo

tiny solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in the atmosphere

Aerosols

the highest rank of coal, characterized as a hard, black, lustrous, metamorphic rock with the highest carbon content (86–97%) and energy density

Anthracite Coal

a toxic indoor air pollutant and carcinogen commonly found in older building insulation, ceiling tiles, and pipe materials

Asbestos

the natural, continuous, and low-level rate of species loss occurring over geological time, typically due to environmental changes, disease, or competition

Background Extinction

the constant, low-level ionizing radiation present in the natural environment, originating from both natural sources (such as radioactive decay in the Earth's crust, cosmic rays from space, and radioactive substances in our bodies) and human-made sources (such as medical procedures and historical nuclear testing fallout)

Background Radiation

sedimentary rock that serves as the world's primary ore for aluminum.

Bauxite

a dense, black sedimentary rock and the most abundant type of coal used for electricity generation and steel making

Bituminous Coal

the gradual buildup of persistent, fat-soluble pollutants in an individual organism's tissues over time, occurring when uptake exceeds metabolism or excretion rates.

Bioaccumulation

the increasing concentration of persistent, fat-soluble toxins in the tissues of organisms at each successive, higher trophic level of a food chain

Biomagnification

organic material from plants and animals used as a renewable energy source, such as wood, crops, and waste

Biomass

the innate, genetically based human affinity for nature and living system

Biophilia

the largest marine oil spill in history, caused by a blowout on a Gulf of Mexico drilling rig that released ~4.9 million barrels (134 million gallons) of crude oil over 87 days

BP Oil Spill (Deep Horizon)

a colorless, odorless, and tasteless poisonous gas produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels; asphyxiation

Carbon monoxide

substances, agents, or radiation that damage DNA, cause mutations, and lead to uncontrolled cell growth, resulting in cancer

Carcinogens

US federal law designed to clean up abandoned or uncontrolled hazardous waste sites.

CERCLA (Superfund)

a self-sustaining series of nuclear fission reactions where neutrons released from one uranium-235 atom split additional atoms

Chain reaction

the worst nuclear power plant accident in history, resulting from a faulty reactor design and operator error during a test

Chernobyl, Ukraine

long-term, adverse health impacts on organisms (including humans) resulting from prolonged or repeated exposure to small amounts of a pollutant or toxicants

Chronic Effects

an international agreement designed to ensure that global trade in wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival

CITES

the long-term, average atmospheric conditions—primarily temperature and precipitation—of a specific region over decades, typically 30 years or more

Climate

a physical or ecological system that exchanges energy with its surroundings but does not exchange matter

Closed system

components made of neutron-absorbing materials inserted into a nuclear reactor core to regulate or halt the fission chain reaction

Control Rod

six widespread, harmful air pollutants regulated by the EPA under the Clean Air Act via National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) to protect public health and the environment; carbon monoxide, NOx (nitrogen oxides), sulfure dioxide, lead, trophospheric, ozone, and particulates

Criteria Pollutants

a non-SI unit of radioactivity used to measure the intensity of a radioactive sample

Curie

the specific amount of a chemical, toxin, or harmful agent that an organism has ingested, inhaled, or absorbed

Dose

a graph illustrating the relationship between the dose of a chemical or stressors (x-axis) and the resulting biological response or mortality rate of a population (y-axis)

Dose-Response Curve

the direct and indirect life-sustaining benefits, processes, and resources supplied by natural environments (forests, wetlands, oceans) to humans. provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting

Ecosystem Services    

the dose or concentration of a toxin, drug, or chemical that causes a specific, non-lethal, measurable effect in 50% of the tested population

ED-50

organisms native to and found exclusively within a specific, limited geographic area

Endemic Species

a network of glands and tissues that release hormones into the bloodstream to regulate vital biological processes, including metabolism, growth, development

Endocrine System

the measure of how much useful work is obtained from each unit of energy used

Energy efficiency

an independent U.S. federal agency that develops and enforces regulations to protect human health and the environment. It plays a critical role in managing air/water quality, hazardous waste, and toxic substances based on Congressional laws; enviormental protection agency

EPA

the known, identified quantity of a nonrenewable natural resource—such as fossil fuels or minerals—that can be legally and economically extracted at a profit using current technology and under existing economic conditions

Estimated Reserve

the elimination of a species from a specific geographic area, region, or habitat, while it continues to exist elsewhere

Extirpation

nonrenewable, combustible energy resources formed over millions of years from the buried, decomposed organic matter of ancient life

Fossil Fuel

a physical separation process used in to refine crude oil (petroleum) into usable components, known as fractions, based on their distinct boiling points

Fractional Distillation

filled with ceramic pellets of enriched uranium that serves as the fuel source in a nuclear reactor. Fuel rods facilitate controlled nuclear fission, generating heat to produce electricity while acting as a barrier to contain radioactive byproducts

Fuel rod

a Level 7 nuclear accident in Ōkuma, Japan, triggered by a magnitude 9.0 earthquake and subsequent tsunami

Fukushima Nuclear Disaster

a reliable, low-emission baseload power source and heating method; powered by the earth’s core

Geothermal

10^9 representing a factor of one billion

Giga- (metric prefix)

the specific, natural environment—including biotic and abiotic factors—where a particular species lives, grows, and finds the necessary resources to survive

Habitat

the breaking up of large, continuous habitats into smaller, isolated patches, primarily caused by human activities like development, agriculture, and road construction

Habitat Fragmentation

a phenomenon where urban areas experience significantly higher air and surface temperatures than surrounding rural areas

Heat Island Effect

extremely toxic, highly radioactive byproduct material from nuclear reactors, primarily spent nuclear fuel rods and waste from reprocessing

High-level Radioactive Waste

a renewable energy source that generates electricity by harnessing the kinetic energy of moving or falling water through turbines, commonly using dams or run-of-the-river systems

Hydroelectric

a massive concrete arch-gravity dam on the Colorado River, located on the border between Arizona and Nevada. Designed for flood control, electricity generation, and water storage in the arid Southwestern U.S.

Hoover Dam

an electrochemical device that converts chemical energy from hydrogen and oxygen into electricity, releasing only water and heat as byproducts. Acts as a clean, high-efficiency energy carrier

Hydrogen Fuel Cell

a complex, specialized network of cells, tissues, and organs that protect an organism against pathogens and environmental toxins

Immune System

harmful gaseous, particulate, or biological contaminants found inside buildings (homes, offices, schools) that degrade indoor air quality and pose significant human health risks

Indoor Air Pollutant (IAP)

is a type of air pollution composed mainly of sulfur dioxide, sulfuric acid droplets, and suspended particulate matter. It is primarily formed by burning coal and heavy oil, commonly found in industrial, cold, and humid environments.

Industrial Smog

Ionizing radiation is high-energy electromagnetic waves or particles that detach electrons from atoms, creating ions. It possesses enough energy to alter molecular structures and damage DNA, posing significant health risks like cancer, while being used in medical diagnostics, energy production, and, unfortunately, creating environmental hazards

Ionizing Radiation

10³ a metric prefix that signifies a factor of one thousand

Kilo - (metrix prefix)

the amount of a substance—such as a toxin, radiation, or pathogen—required to kill 50% of a test population

LD-50

the liquid, often highly contaminated, that forms when water percolates through solid waste in a landfill, extracting soluble, toxic components

Leachate

a dense, soft, malleable, and toxic heavy metal; and its ability to act as a potent radiation shield; neurotoxin, criteria pollutant

Lead

excessive, misdirected, or inappropriate use of artificial light at night, disrupting natural ecosystems, human health, and nocturnal environments. It represents a form of wasted energy and atmospheric pollution that hides the night sky.

Light pollution

the lowest rank of coal, characterized by low carbon content, high moisture, and low energy density

Lignite Coal

NY environmental disaster where a neighborhood was built on top of 21,000 tons of buried industrial waste; event that led to CERCLA being formed

Love Canal

coastal, intertidal ecosystems in tropical and subtropical latitudes, dominated by salt-tolerant, woody trees with dense prop roots

Mangrove forest

10^6 represents a factor of one million

Mega- (metrix prefix)

a naturally occurring, inorganic solid, formed by geological processes, with a definite chemical composition and a crystalline structure

Mineral

a landmark international treaty designed to protect the stratospheric ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances, primarily chlorofluorocarbons

Montreal Protocol

a random, permanent change in an organism’s DNA sequence that serves as the primary source of genetic variation

Mutation

a nonrenewable fossil fuel composed primarily of methane, formed from the buried remains of ancient marine organisms subjected to intense heat and pressure over millions of years. Considered the cleanest-burning fossil fuel.

Natural Gas

a type of toxic substance that specifically disrupts, damages, or destroys the structure and function of the nervous system

Neurotoxin

a group of highly reactive, gaseous primary air pollutants consisting of nitrogen and oxygen—primarily nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide—released mainly from high-temperature combustion of fossil fuels; major contributors to photochemical smog, ground-level ozone formation, and acid rain

Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

unwanted, harmful, or excessive sound in the environment caused by human activity, typically measuring above 85 decibels, which causes physiological stress, hearing loss in humans, and disrupts communication, mating, and migration for wildlife

Noise Pollution

diffuse, land-based water contamination that does not originate from a single, traceable source, making it difficult to regulate; caused by rainfall or snowmelt moving over the ground and picking up pollutants; can be atmospheric as well

Nonpoint Source Pollution

the splitting of a heavy atomic nucleus into smaller nuclei, releasing immense heat and neutrons; chain reaction generates electricity with zero carbon emissions, but produces long-term radioactive waste and presents risks of meltdowns

Nuclear Fission

the process of joining two light atomic nuclei to form a single, heavier nucleus, releasing massive amounts of energy

Nuclear Fusion

unconventional, non-renewable fossil fuel deposits containing a mixture of sand, clay, water, and viscous bitumen, which must be mined and processed into synthetic crude oil.

Oil Sands

a fine-grained sedimentary rock containing solid organic material known as kerogen, a precursor to crude oil; considered an unconventional fossil fuel that requires mining and intensive heating to convert the solid kerogen into synthetic crude oil.

Oil Shale

the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries; an intergovernmental cartel of many of the world's leading oil-producing nations to coordinate petroleum policies, stabilize oil markets, and influence global oil prices

OPEC

a surface mining technique that extracts minerals near the surface by digging a large, open hole to remove overburden; valued for efficiency and safety over underground mining but causes severe ecological damage, including habitat destruction, acid mine drainage, and massive soil/water contamination; used when resources are spread over a really large area, close to surface and continues downward

Open Pit Mining

a system that exchanges both matter and energy across its boundaries with the surrounding environment

Open System

a rock or mineral deposit containing a high enough concentration of a specific mineral—usually a metal—that it can be legally and economically mined and processed for profit

Ore

the layer of soil, rock, and vegetation lying above a desired mineral deposit or coal seam that must be removed during surface mining

Overburden

powerful, toxic secondary pollutants formed in the atmosphere through photochemical (photo= require light) reactions between nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds in sunlight; cause plant damage, eye irritation, and respiratory issues, often transporting far from urban sources, photochemical smog

PANs

a sustainable design approach that directly harnesses solar heat for warming or lighting a building without using mechanical or electrical systems

Passive Solar

synthetic, chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds previously used in industrial electrical equipment due to their stability

PCBs

an accumulation of partially decayed organic matter that forms in acidic, anaerobic, and waterlogged wetland environments

Peat

a group of over 15,000 synthetic, highly persistent "forever chemicals" known as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), they bioaccumulate in humans and the environment, causing toxic health effects like cancer and immune suppression

PFAS

a mixture of secondary pollutant mainly tropospheric ozone, PANs, and aldehydes—formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds react in sunlight; appears as a brownish haze, commonly in warm, urban areas with heavy traffic, and causes respiratory issues and plant damage

Photochemical Smog

a specialized semiconductor device that directly converts sunlight into electrical energy using the photovoltaic effect

Photovoltaic Cell

inhalable particulate matter with a diameter of 10 micrometers or less, consisting of solid particles and liquid droplets from dust, smoke, or industrial combustion; penetrates the lungs, causing respiratory issues, and is primarily generated by road dust, construction, and combustion

PM₁₀

fine inhalable particulate matter with diameters generally 2.5 micrometers, small enough to penetrate deep into lungs and enter the bloodstream; it arises from combustion and atmospheric reactions, causing severe respiratory/cardiovascular issues

PM_2.5

a single, identifiable, and confined source of pollution that discharges contaminants directly into the environment

Point Source pollution

a harmful substance emitted directly into the atmosphere from a specific source

Primary Pollutant

the estimated quantity of a non-renewable natural resource that geological and engineering data demonstrate with reasonable certainty can be extracted for profit under existing economic conditions and with current technology

Proven Reserve

a type of open-pit mine used for the extraction of non-fuel, non-metal, and industrial mineral resources, such as building stone, sand, gravel, or slate, typically from the surface of the Earth.

Quarries

a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring radioactive gas produced by the decay of uranium and thorium in rock, soil, and water; major indoor air pollutant, it enters homes through foundation cracks or well water, causing lung cancer when inhaled, acting as the second leading cause of lung cancer after smoking; indoor pollutant

Radon Gas